Kirkuk كه‌ركووك, كركوك
Country	Kurdistan
Governorate	Kirkuk
Population  (2009 Est.) [1]
• Total	850 787
Time zone	GMT +3
• Summer ( DST)	GMT +4

Kirkuk (also spelled Karkuk or Kerkuk), Arabic: كركوك, Turkish: Kerkük, Syriac: ܐܪܦܗܐ, Kurdish: Kerkûk/که‌رکووک , is a city in Iraq and capital of Kirkuk Governorate.

It is located at 35.47°N, 44.41°E, in the Iraqi governorate of Kirkuk, 250 kilometres (156 miles) north of the capital, Baghdad. The Kirkuk region lies among the Pir Magrun (Gudrun) to the north-east, the Zab River and the Tigris River to the west, the Hamrin Mountains to the south, and the Sirwan ( Diyala) River to the south-east.

It stands on the site of the ancient Assyrian capital of Arrapha ^[2] , which sits near the Khasa River on the ruins of a 5,000-year-old settlement ( Kirkuk Citadel.) Arrapha reached great importance under the Assyrians in the 10th and 11th centuries BC. Because of the strategic geographical location of the city, Kirkuk was the battle ground for three empires, Assyria, Babylonia, and Media, who controlled the city at various times. ^[3] .

Both Kurds and Turkmen claim it as their historical capital ^{[4] [5]}

It was named the "capital of Iraqi culture" by the ministry of culture in 2010 ^[6]

Etymology

The ancient name of Kirkuk was Arraphka which derives from the old Hurrian and is said to mean "city". ^[7]. During the Parthian era, a Korkura is mentioned by Ptolemy, which is believed to refer either to Kirkuk or to the site of Baba Gurgur three miles from the city. ^[8]. Under Greek reign it was known as Karkha D-Bet Slokh, which means 'Citadel of the House of Seleucid' ^[9] in Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent in that era. ^[10]

The region around Kirkuk was known during the Parthian and Sassanid periods as Garmakan, which in Kurdish means the 'Land of Warmth' or the 'Hot Land',in modern Kurdish language "Garm" means warmth ; ^[11] this name is still used by the Kurds in the form Garmian with the same meaning.

From the 7th century, when Muslim Arabs conquered the area, up to the medieval era, Arab writers used the name Kirkheni (citadel) to refer to the city. ^[12] Some Arabs used the names Bajermi or Jermakan, ^[11] (both Semitic variations of Aryan 'Garmakan').

A cuneiform script found in 1927 at the foot of Kirkuk Citadel stated that the city of Erekha of Babylonia was on the site of Kirkuk. Other sources consider Erekha to have been simply one part of the larger Arrapha metropolis.

History

Originally the city was founded by Hurrian-related Zagros- Taurus^{[ disambiguation needed]} dwellers who were known as Karda, Qurtie or Guti by lowland-dwellers of Southern Mesopotamia. Under its ancient name Arraphkha, Kirkuk was capital of Kingdom of Gutium which is mentioned in cuneiform records about 2400 BC. ^[13]

The small Hurrian kingdom of Arraphka, of which modern Kirkuk was the capital, ^[7] was situated along the southeastern edge of the area under Aryan Mittanian domination. ^[14] From 1500 to 1360 BC all kings of Assyria were vassals of kingdom of Mittani. ^[14] Assyria's revolt against the Hurrian kingdom of Mittani probably led to fall of the kingdom in the 14th BC century and ultimately contributed to Mittani empires’s collapse. The city reached great prominence in the 10th and 11th centuries BC under Assyrian rule. However in 6th BC, Assyria was conquered by a union of Medes, remaining Hurrian-related tribes, and Babylonians. ^[15] After Achaemenids had the region under their dominion; In Parthian, and Sassanid eras Kirkuk was capital of a local kingdom called Garmakan, (Kurdish: Garmian).

After the Islamic conquest

Arab Muslims invaded the Sassanid empire in the 7th century AD. Up to the end of the 14th century AD, Kirkuk often administratively and economically belonged to Daquq and they were both at the same time in contact with Arbil, the modern capital of Iraqi Kurdistan, and Sharazor and their extensions. In the medieval era the city was part - and since the 16th century the capital - of the ancient wilayet of Sharazor which is still important to Kurdistan's economy.

Arab immigration

The principal Arab extended families in the city of Kirkuk were: the Tikriti and the Hadidi ( Arabic: الحديدي). The Tikriti family was the main Arab family in Kirkuk coming from Tikrit in 1600s. Other Arab tribes who settled in Kirkuk during the Ottoman Period are the Al-Ubaid ( Arabic: العبيد) and the Al-Jiburi ( Arabic: الجبور). The Al-Ubaid came from just northwest of Mosul when they were forced out of the area by other Arab tribes of that region. They settled in the Hawija district in Kirkuk in 1935 during the government of Yasin al-Hashimi. ^[16]

The largest wave of Arab immigration took place under Baath rule with relocating of thousand Arab families from southern Iraq to the city,and displacing thousands of Kurdish families,in a process known as arabization (taarib).

Turkmen immigration

Turkmens migrated to Iraq during the Umayyads and Abbasid eras as military recruits. Considerable Turkmen settlement began during the Seljuq era when Toghrul entered Iraq in 1055 with his army composed mostly of Oghuz Turks. Kirkuk remained under the control of the Seljuq Empire for 63 years. The Turkmen settlement in Kirkuk was further expanded later during the Ottoman Era. Tuzhurmati, Musul and Kirkuk have been historical Turkmen settlements.

Discovery of oil

In 1927 a huge oil gusher was discovered at Baba Gurgur ("St. Blaze" or father blaze in Kurdish) near Kirkuk. The Kirkuk oil field was brought into use by the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) in 1934. The field has remained the basis of northern Iraqi oil production with over ten billion barrels (1.6 km³) of proven remaining oil reserves as of 1998. After about seven decades of operation, Kirkuk still produces up to one million barrels a day, almost half of all Iraqi oil exports.^{[ citation needed]} The facilities have been frequently sabotaged during the fighting between Iraqi forces and the Kurdish militants.

Some analysts believe that poor reservoir-management practices during the Saddam Hussein years may have seriously, and even permanently, damaged Kirkuk's oil field. One example showed an estimated 1.5 billion barrels of excess fuel oil being reinjected. Other problems include refinery residue and gas-stripped oil. Fuel oil reinjection has increased oil viscosity at Kirkuk making it more difficult and expensive to get the oil out of the ground. ^[17]

Overall, between April 2003 and late December 2004 there were an estimated 123 attacks on Iraqi energy infrastructures, including the country's 7,000 km-long pipeline system. In response to these attacks, which cost Iraq billions of US dollars in lost oil-export revenues and repair costs, the US military set up the Task Force Shield to guard Iraq's energy infrastructure and the Kirkuk-Ceyhan Oil Pipeline in particular. In spite of the fact that little damage was done to Iraq's oil fields during the war itself, looting and sabotage after the war ended was highly destructive and accounted for perhaps eighty percent of the total damage. ^[18]

The discovery of vast quantities of oil in the region after World War I provided the impetus for the annexation of the former Ottoman Wilayah of Mosul (of which the Kirkuk region was a part), to the Iraqi Kingdom, established in 1921. Since then and particularly from 1963 onwards, there have been continuous attempts to transform the ethnic make-up of the region.

Pipelines from Kirkuk run through Turkey to Ceyhan on the Mediterranean Sea and were one of the two main routes for the export of Iraqi oil under the Oil-for-Food Programme following the Gulf War of 1991. This was in accordance with a United Nations mandate that at least 50% of the oil exports pass through Turkey. There were two parallel lines built in 1977 and 1987.

1970 Autonomy Agreement

On paper, the Autonomy Agreement of March 11, 1970, recognized the legitimacy of Kurdish nationalism and guaranteed Kurdish participation in government and Kurdish language teaching in schools. However, it reserved judgment on the territorial extent of Kurdistan, pending a new census. Such a census, according to Kurds would surely have shown a solid Kurdish majority in the city of Kirkuk and the surrounding oilfields, as well as in the secondary oil-bearing Kurdish area of Khanaqin ( Arabic: خانقين), south of the Kurdish city of Sulaymaniyah ( Arabic: السليمانية). A census was not scheduled until 1977, by which time the autonomy deal was dead. In June 1973, with Ba'ath-Kurdish relations already souring, the guerrilla leader Mullah Mustafa Barzani laid formal claim to the Kirkuk oilfields. Baghdad interpreted this as a virtual declaration of war, and, in March 1974, unilaterally decreed an autonomy statute. The new statute was a far cry from the 1970 Manifesto, and its definition of the Kurdish autonomous area explicitly excluded the oil-rich areas of Kirkuk, Khanaqin and Shingal. In tandem with the 1970–1974 autonomy process, the Iraqi regime carried out a comprehensive administrative reform, in which the country's sixteen provinces, or governorates, were renamed and in some cases had their boundaries altered. The old province of Kirkuk was split in half. The area around the city itself was named At-Ta'mim( Arabic: التأميم) ("nationalization"), and its boundaries were redrawn to give an Arab majority. ^[19]

According to Human Rights Watch, from the 1991 Gulf War until 2003, the former Iraqi government systematically expelled an estimated 120,000 Turkmens, Kurds and some Assyrians from Kirkuk and other towns and villages in this oil-rich region. Most have settled in the Kurdish-controlled northern provinces. Meanwhile, the Iraqi government resettled Arab families in their place in an attempt to reduce the political power and presence of ethnic minorities, a process known as Arabization. ^[20]

The "Arabization" of Kirkuk and other oil-rich regions is not a recent phenomenon. Successive governments have sought at various times to reduce the ethnic minority populations residing there since the discovery of significant oil deposits in the 1920s. By the mid-1970s, the Ba'ath Party government that seized power in 1968 embarked on a concerted campaign to alter the demographic makeup of multi-ethnic Kirkuk. The campaign involved the massive relocation of tens of thousands of ethnic minority families from Kirkuk, Sinjar, Khanaqin, and other areas, transferring them to purpose-built resettlement camps. This policy was intensified after the failed Kurdish uprising in March 1991 ^{[21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26]}. Those expelled included individuals who had refused to sign so-called "nationality correction" forms, introduced by the authorities prior to the 1997 population census, requiring members of ethnic groups residing in these districts to relinquish their Kurdish or Turkmen identities and to register officially as Arabs. The Iraqi authorities also seized their property and assets; those who were expelled to areas controlled by Kurdish forces were stripped of all possessions and their ration cards were withdrawn ^[27].

Kirkuk after 2003

American and British military forces led an invasion of Iraq in March 2003, driving Saddam Hussein and his Ba'ath Party from power. A caretaker government was created until the establishment of a democratically-elected government.

Since April 2003, thousands of internally displaced Turkmens and Kurds have returned to Kirkuk and other Arabized regions to reclaim their homes and lands which have since been occupied by Arabs from central and southern Iraq.

Under the supervision of chief executive of Coalition Provisional Authority L. Paul Bremer, a convention was held in May 24, 2003 to select the first City Council in the history of this oil-rich, ethnically divided city. Each of the city's four major ethnic groups was invited to send a 39-member delegation from which they would be allowed to select six to sit on the City Council. Another six council members were selected from among 144 delegates to represent independents social groups such as teachers, lawyers, religious leaders and artists.

Kirkuk's 30 members council is made up of five blocs of six members each. Four of those blocs are formed along ethnic lines- Kurds, Arabs, Assyrian and Turkmen- and the fifth is made up of independents. Turkmen and Arabs complained , however, that Kurds hold five of the seats in the independent block. They are also frustrated that their only representative at the council's helm was an assistant mayor whom they considered pro-Kurdish. Abdul Rahman Mustafa ( Arabic: عبدالرحمن مصطفى), a Baghdad-educated lawyer was elected mayor by 20 votes to 10. The appointment of an Arab, Ismail Ahmed Rajab Al Hadidi ( Arabic: اسماعيل احمد رجب الحديدي), as deputy mayor went some way towards addressing Arab concerns.

On June 30, 2005 through a secret direct voting process with a participation of the widest communities in the province and although of all the political legal security complexes of this process all over the country generally and in Kirkuk in particular, Kirkuk has witnessed the birth of its first elected Provincial Council. The Independent Electoral Commission of Iraq IECI has approved and announced the outcomes of this process, which led to fill the 41 seats of Kirkuk Provincial Council by the won lists as the followings:

• 26 seats 367 List Kirkuk Brotherhood List KBL
• 8 seats 175 List Iraqi Turkmen Front ITF
• 5 seats 299 List Iraqi Republic Gathering
• 1 seats 178 List Turkmen Islamic Coalition
• 1 seats 289 List Iraqi National Gathering

The new Kirkuk Provincial Council started its second turn on March 6, 2005. Its inaugural session was dedicated to have the introduction of its new members then followed by the oath ceremony that was supervised by Judge Thahir Hamza Salman, the Head of Kirkuk Appellate Court.

Future of Kirkuk

We don't call these disputed areas, we call these areas that were sliced off.

— Talib Mohamed Hassan, Kurdish politician in Khanaqin, The Washington Post ^[28]

Barham Salih, Prime Minister for the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Regional Government said that Kirkuk was originally a Kurdish city; it belonged to Kurds rather than to the Iraqi government, and only its oil made it a source of tension and thats why "We have a claim to Kirkuk rooted in history, geography and demographics. This is a recipe for civil war if you don't [address its governance] right". ^[29]

According to the Kurds, the conquerors of Kurdistan have tried to destroy the numerous Kurdish emirates one after the other. Apart from their historical claim for Kirkuk, the Kurds invoke Article 58 of the Administration for the state of Iraq for the transitional period, also known as Administrative Law of March 8, 2004 which is considered the interim constitution of Iraq by the now-dissolved Iraqi Governing Council. Article 58 states in part: The Iraqi Transitional Government shall act expeditious measures to remedy the injustice caused by the previous regime's practice in the demographic character of certain regions, including Kirkuk, by deporting and expelling them from their place of residence and forcing migration in and out of the region. ^[30]

A referendum on whether Kirkuk province should become part of Iraqi Kurdistan was due to be held in November 2007 but has been delayed repeatedly, and currently has no firm date. In December 2007, US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice made an unscheduled visit to Kirkuk before proceeding to Baghdad, where she called on Iraqi leaders to urgently implement a national reconciliation roadmap. ^[31]

Sights

Ancient architectural monuments of Kirkuk include the citadel, the qishla, the Prophet Daniel's Tomb, and Al Qaysareyah Market. The archaeological sites of Qal'at Jarmo and Yorgan Tepe are found at the outskirts of the modern city. In 1997, there were reports that the government of Saddam Hussein "demolished Kirkuk's historic citadel with its mosques and ancient church" ( [1], photographs).

The architectural heritage of Kirkuk sustained serious damage during the World War I (when some pre-Muslim Christian monuments were destroyed) and, more recently, during the Iraq War. Simon Jenkins reported in June 2007 that "eighteen ancient shrines have been lost, ten in Kirkuk and the south in the past month alone". [2]

Prominent figures in Kirkuk's history

• Sheikh Rezza Talabani (an influential Kurdish poet).
• Rafiq Hilmi (a Kurdish poet, writer and academic).
• Ali Mardan (one of the most influential Kurdish musicians).
• Bakr Sidqi (an Iraqi general of Kurdish descent).
• Hijri Dede (a Turkmen poet).
• Mama Risha (a Kurdish peshmerge man).
• Younis Mahmoud (captain of the Iraqi soccer team)

Sister cities

• Arbil
• Mosul

See also

• Kirkuk (Chaldean Archdiocese)
• Tomb of Daniel

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kirkuk.

• Iraq Image - Kirkuk Satellite Observation
• Human Rights Watch Report: Kurdish Autonomy and Arabization, 1993
• Human Rights Developments in Government-controlled Iraq, 2001
• IRAQ: PEOPLE COME FIRST, 2003
• International Humanitarian Law Issues In A Potential War In Iraq, 2003
• Amnesty International Report: Decades of human rights abuse in Iraq, 2003
• Reversing Arabization of Kirkuk, 2004
• Iraq: In Kurdistan, Land Disputes Fuel Unrest, 2004
• German-kurdish homepage for politics and culture
• Insurgents stir up strife in Kirkuk
• Kurds flee Iraqi town, March 15, 2003; named Kurds' preferred capital
• Key Targets in Iraq, Anthony H. Cordesman, CSIS, February 1998; information about the oil resources and facilities
• Brief Summary of Kirkuk History
• Kirkuk in Old Ages
• Numerous research about Kirkuk