The Insurgency in Manipur is an ongoing armed conflict between India and a number of separatist rebel groups, taking place in the state of Manipur. The Insurgency in Manipur is part of the wider Insurgency in Northeast India; it displays elements of a national liberation war as well as an ethnic conflict.
Manipur's long tradition of independence can be traced to the foundation of the Kangleipak State in 33 AD. Before that, the land was not unified under a single power. The Kingdom of Manipur was conquered by Great Britain following the brief Anglo-Manipur War of 1891, becoming a British protectorate. [13]
The Kuki Rebellion of 1917–1919 was subdued by the British forces which led to the reorganisation of administration in the hills. Direct administrative control over the hillmen was enforced to prevent any further uprising. [14]
Manipur became a part of India on 21 October 1949. However, only after violent protests[ citation needed], it became a separate state in 1972. Manipur's incorporation into the Indian state soon led to the formation of a number of insurgent organizations, seeking the creation of an independent state within the borders of Manipur, and dismissing the merger with India as involuntary. [2]
During the post-colonial period as ethnic identities became increasingly politicized separating them from cultural context, [15] tribes such as Anal, Moyon, Monsang and Maring who share cultural similarities with the other Kuki tribes, started identifying themselves as Naga. [15] [16] This is seen as a milestone for the consolidation of Naga nationalism by United Naga Council and National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Isak Muivah. [16]
The annexation of Manipur in 1949 led to split in the polity of Manipur. Political organizations such as Manipur State Congress actively campaigned for union with India while organizations such as Praja Sangh and other parties opposed the union. [17] During this time, Hijam Irabot, a leader of the Communist Party of Manipur was in touch with the Communist Party of Burma to arrange for the training of the militant wing of the party, the Red Guards. After Irabot's death the movement split into various factions. [17]
In the second wave of the insurgency, the first separatist faction, known as United National Liberation Front (UNLF), was founded on 24 November 1964. However, they did not take armed action until 1991. Between 1977 and 1980, the People's Liberation Army of Manipur (PLA), People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) and the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), were formed, immediately joining the war. [2]
Naga insurgency began in 1980s with the founding of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland. This was followed by the formation of Kuki National Front and the Kuki National Organisation and its armed wing Kuki National Army in 1987 and 1988 respectively. [16]
On 8 September 1980, Manipur was declared an area of disturbance, when the Indian Government imposed the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 on the region; the act currently remains in force. [2] The provision was lifted in various parts of Manipur in March 2023. [18] [19]
The parallel rise of Naga nationalism in neighboring Nagaland led to the emergence of National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) activities in Manipur. Clashes between the Isak-Muivah and Khaplang factions of NSCN further aggravated tensions, as Kuki tribals began creating their own guerrilla groups in order to protect their interests from alleged Naga violations. Other ethnic groups such as Paite, Vaiphei, Pangals and Hmars followed suit establishing militant groups. [2]
This section relies largely or entirely upon a
single source. (August 2023) |
In contrast with the other insurgencies in Northeast India, Manipur-based militants are characterized by a low level of defections and a well organized intelligence network. They have also avoided targeting local police personnel, thus aiming to secure popular support. [2]
Extortion remains the main source of funding for militant groups. [20] Hindu Temples, educational institutions and businesses are known to have been targeted with illegal taxation. As many as 26 permanent tax collection checkpoints have been set up on the NH-39 and NH-53 National Highways. Militants have also resorted to abducting children and later employing them as child soldiers. [2] [20] The illegal taxation is done through posts that can be found alongside the NH-39 and NH-53 highways.[ citation needed] The taxation is very high compared to the local police excise duties.[ citation needed] The effect of these taxations are largely felt by the drivers transporting oil along the highways from Assam to Manipur.[ citation needed]
The first suspension of operations (SoO) was signed in 2005 between Kuki militant organizations and the Indian army. [20] In August 2008, a tripartite suspension of operations (SoO) agreement was signed between the Government of India, Government of Manipur and 25 Kuki militant organizations to establish a ceasefire. [21] The agreement lead to a ceasefire and laying down of arms by Kuki militant groups and began the process of negotiations. [20] On 10 March 2023, the Government of Manipur withdrew from the suspension of operations agreement with Kuki National Army and Zomi Revolutionary Front. [22]
From 3 May 2023, Manipur witnessed an ethnic violence which led to a separation of valley and hill areas with purging of Kukis and Meiteis from respective areas. [23] This marked a new era in Manipur's insurgency where the militant groups of respective ethnic communities witnessed a resurgence in membership. [24] [25]
Militant organizations in Manipur display ethnic loyalties among a range of other ideologies. [15]
Ethnic Group | Militant Groups/Factions |
---|---|
Meitei | 1. United National Liberation Front (UNLF), 2. People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 3. People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) (The above-mentioned three groups now operate from a unified platform under the Manipur People’s Liberation Front), 4. Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), 5. Kanglei Yawol Kanna Lup (KYKL), 6. Manipur Liberation Tiger Army (MLTA), 7. Iripak Kanba Lup (IKL), 8. People’s Republican Army (PRA), 9. Kangleipak Kanba Kanglup (KKK), 10. Kangleipak Liberation Organisation (KLO) |
Kuki | 1. Kuki National Army, 2. Kuki National Front (Military Council), 3. Kuki Liberation Army (Manipur), 4. Kuki National Front (Kukiland), 5. Kuki Revolutionary Army (Unification), 6. United Old Kuki Liberation Army, 7. United Komrem Revolutionary Army, 8. United Socialist Revolutionary Army, 9. Zomi Revolutionary Front, 10. Zou Defence Volunteer (KNO) 11. Kuki National Front (Samuel), 12. Kuki Revolutionary Army, 13. Kuki National Front (President), 14. Hmar People Convention (Democratic), 15. Kuki Liberation Army (UPF), 16. United Kuki Liberation Front, 17. United Komrem People Council, 18. Zou Defence Volunteer (UPF), 19. Zomi Revolutionary Army, 20. Hmar People’s Convention-Democracy (HPC-D), 21. Hmar Revolutionary Front (HRF), 22. Chin Kuki Revolutionary Front (CKRF) |
Naga | 1. National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Isak-Muivah (NSCN-IM), 2. National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Khaplang) |
The following is an incomplete list of events relating to the insurgency in Manipur. Most of these events cannot be independently verified because news journalists usually have very limited access to reaching the areas where the fighting take place. [26]
Insurgency in Manipur | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of Insurgency in Northeast India | |||||||
Map of Manipur | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
India | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Former:
|
Rajkumar Meghen (
POW) R.K. Tulachandra (PREPAK) † Irengbam Chaoren Thang Lian Pau (ZRA) Thuingaleng Muivah (NSCN-IM) S. S. Khaplang (NSCN-K) [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
1,325,000 [10] |
1,500 2,500 500 PREPAK 600 KYKL 100 KCP 4,500 NSCN-IM 2,000 NSCN-K [2] [3] [4] | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
Since 1992 1,081+ Killed [11] |
Since 1992 2,895+ killed [11] | ||||||
2,253+ civilians killed since 1992
[11] |
The Insurgency in Manipur is an ongoing armed conflict between India and a number of separatist rebel groups, taking place in the state of Manipur. The Insurgency in Manipur is part of the wider Insurgency in Northeast India; it displays elements of a national liberation war as well as an ethnic conflict.
Manipur's long tradition of independence can be traced to the foundation of the Kangleipak State in 33 AD. Before that, the land was not unified under a single power. The Kingdom of Manipur was conquered by Great Britain following the brief Anglo-Manipur War of 1891, becoming a British protectorate. [13]
The Kuki Rebellion of 1917–1919 was subdued by the British forces which led to the reorganisation of administration in the hills. Direct administrative control over the hillmen was enforced to prevent any further uprising. [14]
Manipur became a part of India on 21 October 1949. However, only after violent protests[ citation needed], it became a separate state in 1972. Manipur's incorporation into the Indian state soon led to the formation of a number of insurgent organizations, seeking the creation of an independent state within the borders of Manipur, and dismissing the merger with India as involuntary. [2]
During the post-colonial period as ethnic identities became increasingly politicized separating them from cultural context, [15] tribes such as Anal, Moyon, Monsang and Maring who share cultural similarities with the other Kuki tribes, started identifying themselves as Naga. [15] [16] This is seen as a milestone for the consolidation of Naga nationalism by United Naga Council and National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Isak Muivah. [16]
The annexation of Manipur in 1949 led to split in the polity of Manipur. Political organizations such as Manipur State Congress actively campaigned for union with India while organizations such as Praja Sangh and other parties opposed the union. [17] During this time, Hijam Irabot, a leader of the Communist Party of Manipur was in touch with the Communist Party of Burma to arrange for the training of the militant wing of the party, the Red Guards. After Irabot's death the movement split into various factions. [17]
In the second wave of the insurgency, the first separatist faction, known as United National Liberation Front (UNLF), was founded on 24 November 1964. However, they did not take armed action until 1991. Between 1977 and 1980, the People's Liberation Army of Manipur (PLA), People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) and the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), were formed, immediately joining the war. [2]
Naga insurgency began in 1980s with the founding of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland. This was followed by the formation of Kuki National Front and the Kuki National Organisation and its armed wing Kuki National Army in 1987 and 1988 respectively. [16]
On 8 September 1980, Manipur was declared an area of disturbance, when the Indian Government imposed the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 on the region; the act currently remains in force. [2] The provision was lifted in various parts of Manipur in March 2023. [18] [19]
The parallel rise of Naga nationalism in neighboring Nagaland led to the emergence of National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) activities in Manipur. Clashes between the Isak-Muivah and Khaplang factions of NSCN further aggravated tensions, as Kuki tribals began creating their own guerrilla groups in order to protect their interests from alleged Naga violations. Other ethnic groups such as Paite, Vaiphei, Pangals and Hmars followed suit establishing militant groups. [2]
This section relies largely or entirely upon a
single source. (August 2023) |
In contrast with the other insurgencies in Northeast India, Manipur-based militants are characterized by a low level of defections and a well organized intelligence network. They have also avoided targeting local police personnel, thus aiming to secure popular support. [2]
Extortion remains the main source of funding for militant groups. [20] Hindu Temples, educational institutions and businesses are known to have been targeted with illegal taxation. As many as 26 permanent tax collection checkpoints have been set up on the NH-39 and NH-53 National Highways. Militants have also resorted to abducting children and later employing them as child soldiers. [2] [20] The illegal taxation is done through posts that can be found alongside the NH-39 and NH-53 highways.[ citation needed] The taxation is very high compared to the local police excise duties.[ citation needed] The effect of these taxations are largely felt by the drivers transporting oil along the highways from Assam to Manipur.[ citation needed]
The first suspension of operations (SoO) was signed in 2005 between Kuki militant organizations and the Indian army. [20] In August 2008, a tripartite suspension of operations (SoO) agreement was signed between the Government of India, Government of Manipur and 25 Kuki militant organizations to establish a ceasefire. [21] The agreement lead to a ceasefire and laying down of arms by Kuki militant groups and began the process of negotiations. [20] On 10 March 2023, the Government of Manipur withdrew from the suspension of operations agreement with Kuki National Army and Zomi Revolutionary Front. [22]
From 3 May 2023, Manipur witnessed an ethnic violence which led to a separation of valley and hill areas with purging of Kukis and Meiteis from respective areas. [23] This marked a new era in Manipur's insurgency where the militant groups of respective ethnic communities witnessed a resurgence in membership. [24] [25]
Militant organizations in Manipur display ethnic loyalties among a range of other ideologies. [15]
Ethnic Group | Militant Groups/Factions |
---|---|
Meitei | 1. United National Liberation Front (UNLF), 2. People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 3. People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) (The above-mentioned three groups now operate from a unified platform under the Manipur People’s Liberation Front), 4. Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), 5. Kanglei Yawol Kanna Lup (KYKL), 6. Manipur Liberation Tiger Army (MLTA), 7. Iripak Kanba Lup (IKL), 8. People’s Republican Army (PRA), 9. Kangleipak Kanba Kanglup (KKK), 10. Kangleipak Liberation Organisation (KLO) |
Kuki | 1. Kuki National Army, 2. Kuki National Front (Military Council), 3. Kuki Liberation Army (Manipur), 4. Kuki National Front (Kukiland), 5. Kuki Revolutionary Army (Unification), 6. United Old Kuki Liberation Army, 7. United Komrem Revolutionary Army, 8. United Socialist Revolutionary Army, 9. Zomi Revolutionary Front, 10. Zou Defence Volunteer (KNO) 11. Kuki National Front (Samuel), 12. Kuki Revolutionary Army, 13. Kuki National Front (President), 14. Hmar People Convention (Democratic), 15. Kuki Liberation Army (UPF), 16. United Kuki Liberation Front, 17. United Komrem People Council, 18. Zou Defence Volunteer (UPF), 19. Zomi Revolutionary Army, 20. Hmar People’s Convention-Democracy (HPC-D), 21. Hmar Revolutionary Front (HRF), 22. Chin Kuki Revolutionary Front (CKRF) |
Naga | 1. National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Isak-Muivah (NSCN-IM), 2. National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Khaplang) |
The following is an incomplete list of events relating to the insurgency in Manipur. Most of these events cannot be independently verified because news journalists usually have very limited access to reaching the areas where the fighting take place. [26]