The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)".(RV 10.15.14) ^{[1] [2]}

Pantheon

Though a large number of devatas are named in the Rig Veda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space and heaven. ^[3] The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, Devas and Asuras. The Devas ( Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians. ^[4] Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas. ^[5]

Philosophy

See also philosophers of Vedic age

Vedic philosophy primarily begins with the later part of the Rigveda, which was compiled before 1100 BCE. ^[6] Most of the philosophy of the Rigveda is contained in the sections Purusha sukta and Nasadiya sukta. ^[7]

Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, Rishaba, Vamadeva, and Angiras. ^[8]

Ethics — satya and rta

Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Rta. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, ^[9] whereas Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. ^[10] Panikkar remarks:

Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense [...] It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...." ^[11]

The term is inherited from the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior to the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian) scriptures. Asha^{[ pronunciation?]} (aša) is the Avestan language term (corresponding to Vedic language ṛta) for a concept of cardinal importance ^[12] to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine.

Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. The term Dharma was already used in Brahmanical thought, were it was conceived as an aspect of Rta. ^[13]

The concept of Yajna or sacrifice is also enunciated in the Purusha sukta where reaching the Absolute itself is considered a transcendent sacrifice when viewed from the point of view of the individual. ^[14]

Post-Vedic religions

The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC. The period after the Vedic religion, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is the formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. ^{[15] [16] [17] [18]} According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism". ^{[19] [note 1]} Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period":

...this was a time when traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic pariod". ^[21]

According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed between 800 BCE and 200 BCE: ^{[17] [note 2]}

Indian philosophers came to regard the human as an immortal soul encased in a perishable body and bound by action, or karma, to a cycle of endless existences. ^[23]

The Vedic religion gradually metamorphosed into the various schools of Hinduism, which further evolved into Puranic Hinduism. ^[24] However aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as Kerala where the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, which are considered extinct in all other parts.

Post-Vedic Hinduism

The Hindu samskaras

...go back to a hoary antiquity. The Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Grhyasutras, the Dharmasutras, the Smritis and other treatises describe the rites, ceremonies and customs. ^[25]

The worshipping rituals developed in such a way that

A formal distinction was maintained between Srauta rites (rites using the Vedic hymns), which were necessarily performed by priests, and Griha ("domestic") rites, performed by the Aryan householder himself; but both the latter and the former were subject to priestly influence. Some domestic rites became almost indistinguishable from the priestly Srauta sacrifices; and, even where older ceremonies were retained, they were usually interwoven with elements of the priestly ritual. ^[26]

Vedanta

Vedic religion was followed by Upanishads which gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is regarded by some as the primary institution of Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas." ^[27] The philosophy of Vedanta (lit. “The end of the Vedas"), transformed the Vedic worldview to monistic one. This led to the development of tantric metaphysics and gave rise to new forms of yoga, such as jnana yoga and bhakti yoga. ^[28] There are some conservative schools which continue portions of the historical Vedic religion largely unchanged. (see Śrauta, Nambudiri). ^[29]

Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in a newer sense, Jeaneane D. Fowler writes the following:

Despite the radically different nature of the Upanishads in relation to the Vedas it has to be remembered that the material of both form the Veda or "knowledge" which is sruti literature. So the Upanishads develop the ideas of the Vedas beyond their ritual formalism and should not be seen as isolated from them. The fact that the Vedas that are more particularly emphasized in the Vedanta: the efficacy of the Vedic ritual is not rejected, it is just that there is a search for the Reality that informs it. ^[30]

Bhakti

The Vedic gods declined ^[31] but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon. ^[32] Deities arose that were not mentioned or barely mentioned in the Veda, especially Shiva and Vishnu, ^[31] and gave rise to Shaivism and Vaishnavism. ^[31]

Interpretations of Vedic Mantras in Hinduism

The various Hindu schools and traditions give various interpretations of the Vedic hymns.

Mimamsa philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a god to validate the rituals. ^[33] Mimamsa argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods. ^[34]

Adi Shankara interpreted Vedas as being non-dualistic or monistic. ^[35] However, Arya Samaj holds the view that the Vedic mantras tend to monotheism. ^[36] Even the earlier Mandalas of Rig Veda (books 1 and 9) contains hymns which are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism. ^[37] Often quoted isolated pada 1.164.46 of the Rig Veda states (trans. Griffith):

Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān,

ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ

"They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.

To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan".

Moreover, the verses of 10.129 and 10.130, deal with the one being (Ékam sát). The verse 10.129.7 further confirms this (trans. Griffith):

iyám vísṛṣṭiḥ yátaḥ ābabhūva / yádi vā dadhé yádi vā ná / yáḥ asya ádhyakṣaḥ paramé vyóman / sáḥ aṅgá veda yádi vā ná véda

"He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not, He who surveys it all from his highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps even he does not"

Sramana tradition

The non-Vedic Sramana traditions existed alongside Brahmanism. ^{[38] [39] [note 3] [note 4] [note 5]} These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions, ^[38] reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India". ^[40] Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition. ^{[41] [42]}

There are Jaina references to 22 pre-historic Tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th Century BCE). ^{[43] [44]} Buddhism, traditionally put from c. 500 BC, declined in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism ^[45] and Islam. ^{[46] [47] [48]}

See also

• Vedas
• Vedic priesthood
• Vedic period
• Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
• Proto-Indo-European religion
• Vedic mythology
• Iranian mythology
• Zoroastrianism
• Ahimsa
• Yoga

Notes

References

Sources