{{two other uses|the fruits of the genus [[Vitis]]|the European grapevine|Vitis vinifera|other uses|Grape (disambiguation)}}

[[File:Table grapes on white.jpg|thumb|250px|Green table grapes]]

{{Nutritional value

| name=Grapes, red or green

| kJ=288

| protein=0.72 g

| fat=0.16 g

| carbs=18.1 g

| fiber=0.9 g

| sugars=15.48 g

| glucose=7.2 g

| fructose=8.13 g

| sodium_mg = 3.02

| iron_mg=0.36

| calcium_mg=10

| magnesium_mg=7

| manganese_mg=0.071

| phosphorus_mg=20

| potassium_mg=191

| zinc_mg=0.07

| vitC_mg=10.8

| pantothenic_mg=0.05

| vitB6_mg=0.086

| vitB12_ug = 0

| vitK_ug = 22

| folate_ug=2

| thiamin_mg=0.069

| riboflavin_mg=0.07

| niacin_mg=0.188

| right=1

| source_usda=1 }}

A '''grape''' is the non-climacteric [[fruit]], botanically a true [[berry]], that grows on the [[Perennial plant|perennial]] and [[deciduous]] woody [[vine]]s of the [[genus]] ''[[Vitis]]''. Grapes can be eaten raw or used for making [[jam]], [[grape juice|juice]], [[Jelly (fruit preserves)|jelly]], [[vinegar]], [[wine]], [[grape seed extract]]s, [[raisins]], and [[grape seed oil]]. Grapes are also used in some kinds of [[confectionery]].

== History ==

Ancient [[Egyptian]] [[hieroglyphics]] show the cultivation of grapes. Scholars believe that ancient [[Greeks]], [[Phoenicians]] and [[Romans]] also grew grapes for both eating and [[wine]] production. Later, the growing of grapes spread to [[Europe]], [[North Africa]], and eventually North America. Native grapes in parts of [[North America]] grew along streams; however, the first cultivated grapes in [[California]] were grown by Spanish Franciscan Friars looking to make a sacramental wine for the California Missions. The first table grape vineyard in [[California]] is credited to an early settler by the name of [[William Wolfskill]] in the [[Los Angeles]] area. As more settlers came to California, more and more varieties of European grapes were introduced: some for wine-making, others for raisins and some for eating fresh.

Today in the United States, approximately 98 percent of commercially grown table grapes are from California (California Table Grape Commission).

== Description ==

Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the red grape. [[Mutations]] in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of [[anthocyanin]]s which are responsible for the color of red grapes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes|author=Walker AR, Lee E, Bogs J, McDavid DA, Thomas MR, Robinson SP|journal=Plant J|year=2007|volume=49|issue=5|pages=772&ndash;85|pmid=17316172 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02997.x+|month=Mar|first1=AR|first2=E|first3=J|first4=DA|first5=MR|first6=SP|issn=0960-7412|doi_brokendate=2009-09-06}}</ref> Anthocyanins and other [[pigment]] chemicals of the larger family of [[polyphenol]]s in red grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Waterhouse AL |title=Wine phenolics |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=957 |issue= |pages=21–36 |year=2002 |month=May |pmid=12074959 |doi= 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb02903.x|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0077-8923&date=2002&volume=957&spage=21 |first1=AL |issn=0077-8923}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Brouillard R, Chassaing S, Fougerousse A |title=Why are grape/fresh wine anthocyanins so simple and why is it that red wine color lasts so long? |journal = [[Phytochemistry (journal)|Phytochemistry]] |volume=64 |issue=7 |pages=1179–86 |year=2003 |month=December |pmid=14599515 |doi= 10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00518-1|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031942203005181 |first1=R |first2=S |first3=A |issn=0031-9422}}</ref>

== Grapevines ==

{{main|Vitis}}

[[File:Grapes Angoor.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Yaquti Grapes production in 2008, Iran.]]

Most grapes come from [[List of grape varieties|cultivars]] of ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:

* ''[[Vitis labrusca]]'', the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the [[concord (grape)|concord]] cultivar), sometimes used for wine. Native to the [[Eastern United States]] and [[Canada]].

* ''[[Vitis riparia]]'', a wild vine of [[North America]], sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire [[Eastern U.S.]] and north to [[Quebec]].

* ''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]'', the [[muscadine]]s, used for jams and wine. Native to the [[Southeastern United States]] from [[Delaware]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]].

* ''[[Vitis amurensis]]'', the most important Asian species.

== Distribution and production ==

[[File:2005grape.PNG|thumb|right|250px|Grape production in 2005]]

According to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), 75,866 square kilometres of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as [[dried fruit]]. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year. <!-- references needed: Popularity for the purple grape has increased tremendously over the past decade. In March 2006, the purple grape reached its peak in popularity by being preferred 83% of the time over green grapes in a University of Michigan poll. -->

The following table of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for [[wine making]]:

{|class="wikitable"

!Country

!Area Dedicated

|-

| Spain

| align="center"| 11,750&nbsp;km²

|-

| France

| align="center"| 8,640&nbsp;km²

|-

| Italy

| align="center"| 8,270&nbsp;km²

|-

| Turkey

| align="center"| 8,120&nbsp;km²

|-

| United States

| align="center"| 4,150&nbsp;km²

|-

| Iran

| align="center"| 2,860&nbsp;km²

|-

| Romania

| align="center"| 2,480&nbsp;km²

|-

| Portugal

| align="center"| 2,160&nbsp;km²

|-

| Argentina

| align="center"| 2,080&nbsp;km²

|-

| Australia

| align="center"| 1,642&nbsp;km²

|-

| Lebanon

| align="center"| 1,122&nbsp;km²

|-

|}

{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="100%" class="wikitable" align=left style="clear:left"

! colspan=3|Top Ten Grapes Producers — 08 October 2009

|-

! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="25%" | Country

! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="15%" | Production ([[Tonne]]s)

! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="10%" | Footnote

|-

| {{ITA}} || align=right |8,519,418|| align=right | F

|-

| {{PRC}} || align=right |6,787,081|| align=right | F

|-

| {{USA}} || align=right |6,384,090|| align=right | F

|-

| {{FRA}} || align=right |6,044,900|| align=right | F

|-

| {{ESP}} || align=right |5,995,300|| align=right | F

|-

| {{TUR}} || align=right |3,612,781|| align=right | F

|-

| {{IRI}} || align=right |3,000,000|| align=right | F

|-

| {{ARG}} || align=right |2,900,000|| align=right | F

|-

| {{CHI}} || align=right |2,350,000|| align=right | F

|-

| {{IND}} || align=right |1,667,700|| align=right | F

|-

| bgcolor=#cccccc| '''{{flag|World}}'''

| bgcolor=#cccccc align=right | '''67,221,000'''

| bgcolor=#cccccc align=right | '''A'''

|-

|colspan=5 style="font-size:.7em"|No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAOSTAT 2007, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates);<br />

Source: [http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision]

|}

{{-}}

== Seedless grapes ==

Seedlessness is a highly desirable subjective quality in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetatively propagated]] by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using [[Plant tissue culture|tissue culture]] techniques.

There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of ''[[Vitis vinifera]]''. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Reliance and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of north-eastern United States and southern [[Ontario]].<ref>Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. [http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/reisch/bulletin/table/tabletext3.html "Seedless Grapes"], in "Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates", Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, retrieved December 30, 2008</ref>

An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched [[phytochemical]] content of grape seeds (see [[#Health claims|Health claims, below]]).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shi J, Yu J, Pohorly JE, Kakuda Y |title=Polyphenolics in grape seeds-biochemistry and functionality |journal=J Med Food |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=291–9 |year=2003 |pmid=14977436 |doi=10.1089/109662003772519831 |url= |month=Winter |first1=J |first2=J |first3=JE |first4=Y |issn=1096-620X

}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Parry J, Su L, Moore J, ''et al.'' |title=Chemical compositions, antioxidant capacities, and antiproliferative activities of selected fruit seed flours |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=54 |issue=11 |pages=3773–8 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16719495 |doi=10.1021/jf060325k |url= |first1=J |first2=L |first3=J |first4=Z |first5=M |first6=JN |first7=JY |first8=LL |issn=0021-8561

}}</ref>

== Raisins, currants, sultanas and Kismis ==

[[File:Raisins 01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Raisins]]]]In most of Europe, dried grapes are referred to as 'raisins' or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "[[Dried vine fruit]]" in official documents.

A ''[[raisin]]'' is any dried grape. While ''raisin'' is a French [[loanword]], the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; ''grappe'' (from which the English ''grape'' is derived) refers to the bunch (as in ''une grappe de raisins'').

A ''[[Zante currant|currant]]'' is a dried [[Zakynthos|Zante]] [[Black Corinth]] grape, the name being a corruption of the [[French language|French]] ''raisin de Corinthe'' ([[Corinth]] grape). Note also that ''currant'' has come to refer also to the [[blackcurrant]] and [[redcurrant]], two berries unrelated to grapes.

A ''[[sultana (grape)|sultana]]'' was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin, but the word is now applied to raisins made from common grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana.

== Health claims ==

{{main|Wine and health|French Paradox|Resveratrol}}

=== French Paradox ===

Comparing diets among western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of [[heart disease]] remains low in France, a phenomenon named the [[French Paradox]] and thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced [[platelet]] aggregation and [[vasodilation]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Providência R |title=Cardiovascular protection from alcoholic drinks: scientific basis of the French Paradox |journal=Rev Port Cardiol |volume=25 |issue=11 |pages=1043–58 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17274460 |doi= |url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+64-17-5 |first1=R |issn=0870-2551 |format=Free full text}}</ref> [[polyphenol]]s (e.g., [[resveratrol]]) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Opie LH, Lecour S |title=The red wine hypothesis: from concepts to protective signalling molecules |journal=Eur. Heart J. |volume=28 |issue=14 |pages=1683–93 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17561496 |doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehm149 |url=http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17561496 |first1=LH |first2=S |issn=0195-668X |format=Free full text}}</ref>

* alteration of molecular mechanisms in blood vessels, reducing susceptibility to vascular damage

* decreased activity of [[angiotensin]], a systemic hormone causing blood vessel constriction that would elevate blood pressure

* increased production of the [[vasodilator]] hormone, [[nitric oxide]] ([[endothelium-derived relaxing factor]])

Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities,<ref>American Heart Association, Alcohol, wine and cardiovascular disease.[http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4422]</ref> a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits.<ref>[http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/alcohol.html Alcohol. Harvard School of Public Health]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Mukamal KJ, Kennedy M, Cushman M, ''et al.'' |title=Alcohol consumption and lower extremity arterial disease among older adults: the cardiovascular health study |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=167 |issue=1 |pages=34–41 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=17971339 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwm274 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17971339 |first1=KJ |first2=M |first3=M |first4=LH |first5=AB |first6=J |first7=MH |first8=DS |issn=0002-9262 |format=Free full text}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=de Lange DW, van de Wiel A |title=Drink to prevent: review on the cardioprotective mechanisms of alcohol and red wine polyphenols |journal=Semin Vasc Med |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=173–86 |year=2004 |month=May |pmid=15478039 |doi=10.1055/s-2004-835376 |url= |first1=DW |first2=A |issn=1528-9648}}</ref> Emerging evidence is that wine [[polyphenol]]s like [[resveratrol]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Das S, Das DK |title=Resveratrol: a therapeutic promise for cardiovascular diseases |journal=Recent Patents Cardiovasc Drug Discov |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=133–8 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=18221111 |doi= 10.2174/157489007780832560|url= |first1=S |first2=DK |issn=1574-8901}}</ref> provide physiological benefit whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sato M, Maulik N, Das DK |title=Cardioprotection with alcohol: role of both alcohol and polyphenolic antioxidants |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=957 |issue= |pages=122–35 |year=2002 |month=May |pmid=12074967 |doi= 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb02911.x|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0077-8923&date=2002&volume=957&spage=122 |first1=M |first2=N |first3=DK |issn=0077-8923}}</ref>

=== Resveratrol ===

Grape [[phytochemical]]s such as [[resveratrol]] (a [[polyphenol antioxidant]]), have been positively linked to inhibiting any [[cancer]], [[heart disease]], degenerative [[nerve]] disease, [[viral]] infections and mechanisms of [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shankar S, Singh G, Srivastava RK |title=Chemoprevention by resveratrol: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential |journal=Front. Biosci. |volume=12 |issue= |pages=4839–54 |year=2007 |pmid=17569614 |doi= 10.2741/2432|url=http://www.bioscience.org/2007/v12/af/2432/fulltext.htm |month=Sep |first1=S |first2=G |first3=RK |issn=1093-9946}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Mancuso C, Bates TE, Butterfield DA, ''et al.'' |title=Natural antioxidants in Alzheimer's disease |journal=Expert Opin Investig Drugs |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1921–31 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18042001 |doi=10.1517/13543784.16.12.1921 |url= |first1=C |first2=TE |first3=DA |first4=S |first5=C |first6=A |first7=AT |first8=V |issn=1354-3784}}</ref>

Protection of the genome through [[antioxidant]] actions may be a general function of resveratrol.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gatz SA, Wiesmüller L |title=Take a break&mdash;resveratrol in action on DNA |journal=Carcinogenesis |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=321–32 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18174251 |doi=10.1093/carcin/bgm276 |url=http://carcin.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18174251 |first1=SA |first2=L |issn=0143-3334 |format=Free full text}}</ref> In laboratory studies, resveratrol bears a significant [[transcription (genetics)|transcriptional]] overlap with the beneficial effects of [[calorie restriction]] in [[heart]], [[skeletal muscle]] and [[brain]]. Both dietary interventions inhibit [[gene expression]] associated with heart and skeletal muscle [[aging]], and prevent age-related heart failure.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Barger JL, Kayo T, Vann JM, ''et al.'' |title=A low dose of dietary resveratrol partially mimics caloric restriction and retards aging parameters in mice |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=e2264 |year=2008 |pmid=18523577 |pmc=2386967 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002264 |url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002264 |month=Jun |first1=JL |first2=T |first3=JM |first4=EB |first5=J |first6=TA |first7=Y |first8=D |first9=JD |first10=C |first11=DB |last12=Saupe |first12=KW |last13=Cartee |first13=GD |last14=Weindruch |first14=R |last15=Prolla |first15=TA |format=Free full text}}</ref>

Resveratrol is the subject of several human [[clinical trial]]s,<ref>Listing of resveratrol clinical trials, ClinicalTrials.gov, a service of the US National Institutes of Health[http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=resveratrol]</ref> among which the most advanced is a one year dietary regimen in a Phase III study of elderly patients with [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref>Randomized Trial of a Nutritional Supplement in Alzheimer's Disease, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, May 2008

[http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00678431?term=resveratrol&rank=5]</ref>

Synthesized by many plants, resveratrol apparently serves [[antifungal drug|antifungal]] and other defensive properties. Dietary resveratrol has been shown to modulate the metabolism of [[lipid]]s and to inhibit oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and aggregation of [[platelet]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chan WK, Delucchi AB |title=Resveratrol, a red wine constituent, is a mechanism-based inactivator of cytochrome P450 3A4 |journal=Life Sci. |volume=67 |issue=25 |pages=3103–12 |year=2000 |month=November |pmid=11125847 |doi= 10.1016/S0024-3205(00)00888-2|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0024320500008882 |first1=WK |first2=AB |issn=0024-3205}}</ref>

Resveratrol is found in wide amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds which, in [[muscadine]] grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp.<ref name = "guhqhr">LeBlanc, MR (2005). Cultivar, Juice Extraction, Ultra Violet Irradiation and Storage Influence the Stilbene Content of Muscadine Grapes (Vitis Rotundifolia Michx.). PhD Dissertation, Louisiana State University[http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-01202006-082858/]</ref> Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Li X, Wu B, Wang L, Li S |title=Extractable amounts of trans-resveratrol in seed and berry skin in Vitis evaluated at the germplasm level |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=54 |issue=23 |pages=8804–11 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17090126 |doi=10.1021/jf061722y |url= |first1=X |first2=B |first3=L |first4=S |issn=0021-8561}}</ref>

=== Anthocyanins and other phenolics ===

[[File:Wine grape diagram en.svg|right|thumb|250px|Grape cross-section|alt=Anatomical-style diagram of three grapes on their stalks. Two of the grapes are shown in cross-section with all their internal parts labelled.]]

Anthocyanins tend to be the main [[polyphenol]]ics in red grapes whereas [[flavan-3-ols]] (e.g., [[catechins]]) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties.<ref name = "hozczp">{{cite journal |author=Cantos E, Espín JC, Tomás-Barberán FA |title=Varietal differences among the polyphenol profiles of seven table grape cultivars studied by LC-DAD-MS-MS |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=50 |issue=20 |pages=5691–6 |year=2002 |month=September |pmid=12236700 |doi=10.1021/jf0204102 |url= |first1=E |first2=JC |first3=FA |issn=0021-8561}}</ref> Total phenolic content, an index of dietary antioxidant strength, is higher in red varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in red grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin.<ref name = "hozczp"/> It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health.<ref name=jafcsymp>[http://pubs.acs.org/journals/jafcau/promo/symposium/berryhealth.html ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'' Presents Research from the 2007 International Berry Health Benefits Symposium], ''Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry'' ACS Publications, February 2008</ref> Phenolic content of grape skin varies with [[cultivar]], soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

Red [[wine]] offers health benefits more so than white because many beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content.[http://www.pbrc.edu/Division_of_Education/pdf/PNS_resveratrol.pdf] Ordinary non-[[muscadine]] [[red wine]] contains between 0.2 and 5.8&nbsp;mg/L,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gu X, Creasy L, Kester A, Zeece M |title=Capillary electrophoretic determination of resveratrol in wines |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=3223–7 |year=1999 |month=August |pmid=10552635 |doi=10.1021/jf981211e |url= |first1=X |first2=L |first3=A |first4=M |issn=0021-8561}}</ref> depending on the grape variety, because it is [[fermentation (food)|fermented]] with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a [[white wine]] contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.

Wines produced from [[muscadine]] grapes may contain more than 40&nbsp;mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content.<ref name = "guhqhr"/><ref> Ector BJ, Magee JB, Hegwood CP, Coign MJ. Resveratrol Concentration in Muscadine Berries, Juice, Pomace, Purees, Seeds, and Wines. [http://www.ajevonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/47/1/57]</ref> In muscadine skins, [[ellagic acid]], [[myricetin]], [[quercetin]], [[kaempferol]], and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pastrana-Bonilla E, Akoh CC, Sellappan S, Krewer G |title=Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of muscadine grapes |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=51 |issue=18 |pages=5497–503 |year=2003 |month=August |pmid=12926904 |doi=10.1021/jf030113c |url= |first1=E |first2=CC |first3=S |first4=G |issn=0021-8561}}</ref> Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes.

=== Seed constituents ===

Since the 1980s, biochemical and medical studies have demonstrated significant [[antioxidant]] properties of grape seed [[oligomeric proanthocyanidins]].<ref>{{cite journal

|author=Bagchi D, Bagchi M, Stohs SJ, ''et al.'' |title=Free radicals and grape seed proanthocyanidin extract: importance in human health and disease prevention |journal=Toxicology |volume=148 |issue=2-3 |pages=187–97 |year=2000 |month=August |pmid=10962138 |doi= 10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00210-9|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0300483X00002109

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}}</ref> Together with [[tannins]], [[polyphenols]] and [[polyunsaturated]] [[fatty acids]], these seed constituents display inhibitory activities against several experimental disease models, including [[cancer]], [[heart failure]] and other disorders of [[oxidative stress]].<ref>{{cite journal

|author=Agarwal C, Singh RP, Agarwal R |title=Grape seed extract induces apoptotic death of human prostate carcinoma DU145 cells via caspases activation accompanied by dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential and cytochrome c release |journal=Carcinogenesis |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=1869–76 |year=2002 |month=November |pmid=12419835 |doi= 10.1093/carcin/23.11.1869|url=http://carcin.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12419835

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}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal

|author=Bagchi D, Sen CK, Ray SD, ''et al.'' |title=Molecular mechanisms of cardioprotection by a novel grape seed proanthocyanidin extract |journal=Mutat. Res. |volume=523-524 |issue= |pages=87–97 |year=2003 |pmid=12628506 |doi= 10.1016/S0027-5107(02)00324-X|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002751070200324X

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|issn=0027-5107

}}</ref>

[[Grape seed oil]] from crushed seeds is used in [[cosmeceutical]]s and [[skincare]] products for many perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil is notable for its high contents of [[tocopherol]]s ([[vitamin E]]), [[phytosterol]]s, and polyunsaturated [[fatty acid]]s such as [[linoleic acid]], [[oleic acid]] and [[alpha-linolenic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Beveridge TH, Girard B, Kopp T, Drover JC |title=Yield and composition of grape seed oils extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide and petroleum ether: varietal effects |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=1799–804 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=15740076 |doi=10.1021/jf040295q |url= |first1=TH |first2=B |first3=T |first4=JC |issn=0021-8561}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Crews C, Hough P, Godward J, ''et al.'' |title=Quantitation of the main constituents of some authentic grape-seed oils of different origin |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=54 |issue=17 |pages=6261–5 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=16910717 |doi=10.1021/jf060338y |url= |first1=C |first2=P |first3=J |first4=P |first5=M |first6=S |first7=W |issn=0021-8561}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Tangolar SG, Ozoğul Y, Tangolar S, Torun A |title=Evaluation of fatty acid profiles and mineral content of grape seed oil of some grape genotypes |journal=Int J Food Sci Nutr |volume= 60|issue= |pages=1–8 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17886077 |doi=10.1080/09637480701581551 |url= |first1=SG |first2=Y |first3=S |first4=A |issn=0963-7486}}</ref>

=== Concord grape juice ===

Commercial juice products from [[Concord grape]]s have been applied in medical research studies, showing potential benefits against the onset stage of [[cancer]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jung KJ, Wallig MA, Singletary KW |title=Purple grape juice inhibits 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced rat mammary tumorigenesis and in vivo DMBA-DNA adduct formation |journal=Cancer Lett. |volume=233 |issue=2 |pages=279–88 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=15878797 |doi=10.1016/j.canlet.2005.03.020 |url= |first1=KJ |first2=MA |first3=KW |issn=0304-3835}}</ref> [[platelet]] aggregation and other risk factors of [[atherosclerosis]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shanmuganayagam D, Warner TF, Krueger CG, Reed JD, Folts JD |title=Concord grape juice attenuates platelet aggregation, serum cholesterol and development of atheroma in hypercholesterolemic rabbits |journal=Atherosclerosis |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=135–42 |year=2007 |month=January |pmid=16780846 |doi=10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2006.03.017 |url= |first1=D |first2=TF |first3=CG |first4=JD |first5=JD |issn=0021-9150}}</ref> loss of physical performance and mental acuity during aging<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shukitt-Hale B, Carey A, Simon L, Mark DA, Joseph JA |title=Effects of Concord grape juice on cognitive and motor deficits in aging |journal=Nutrition |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=295–302 |year=2006 |month=March |pmid=16412610 |doi=10.1016/j.nut.2005.07.016 |url= |first1=B |first2=A |first3=L |first4=DA |first5=JA |issn=0899-9007}}</ref> and [[hypertension]] in humans.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Park YK, Kim JS, Kang MH |title=Concord grape juice supplementation reduces blood pressure in Korean hypertensive men: double-blind, placebo controlled intervention trial |journal=Biofactors |volume=22 |issue=1-4 |pages=145–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15630270 |doi= 10.1002/biof.5520220128|url=http://iospress.metapress.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&issn=0951-6433&volume=22&issue=1&spage=145 |first1=YK |first2=JS |first3=MH |issn=0951-6433}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[List of grape varieties]]

* [[Annual growth cycle of grapevines]]

== Sources ==

{{Refbegin}}

* [http://news.reseau-concept.net/images/oiv_uk/Client/Stat_2002_def2_EN.pdf Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (pdf)]

* [https://www.awbc.com.au/winefacts/data/free.asp?subcatid=102 Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation].

{{Refend}}

;Footnotes

{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==

{{wiktionarypar|grape}}{{commonscat|Grapes}}

* [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Vitis Taxonomic listings for Vitis genus, US Department of Agriculture, Germplasm Resources Information Network]

* [http://www.safecrop.org/english/output/proceedings.html SAFECROP - Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Grapevine Downy and Powdery Mildew]

* [http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts/fruits-and-fruit-juices/1920/2 Nutrition information for grapes]

* [http://winegrapes.wsu.edu/virology/ Information on virus diseases of wine grapes]

{{Viticulture}}

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[[Category:Vitaceae]]

[[Category:Viticulture]]

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