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người Việt / người Kinh | |
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Total population | |
c. 89 million | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Vietnam | 82,085,826 ( 2019) [1] |
United States | 2,183,000 (2019) [2] |
Cambodia | 400,000–1,000,000 [3] |
Japan | 565,026 (2023) [4] |
France | 300,000 [5]–350,000 [6] [7] |
Australia | 334,781 ( 2021) [8] |
Canada | 275,530 ( 2021) [9] |
Taiwan | 259,375 (2024) [a]–470,000 [18] [19] |
Germany | 215,000 (2024) [20] |
South Korea | 209,373 (2022) [b] |
Russia | 13,954 [22]–150,000 [23] |
Thailand | 100,000 [24] [25]–500,000 [26] |
Laos | 100,000 [27] |
United Kingdom | 90,000 [28]–100,000 [29] [30] |
Malaysia | 80,000 [31] |
Czech Republic | 60,000–80,000 [32] |
Poland | 40,000–50,000 [32] |
Angola | 40,000 [33] [34] |
Mainland China | 42,000 [35] [36]–303,000 [37] [c]/33,112 ( 2020) [38] [d] |
Norway | 28,114 (2022) [39] |
Netherlands | 24,594 (2021) [40] |
Sweden | 21,528 (2021) [41] |
Macau | 20,000 (2018) [42] |
United Arab Emirates | 20,000 [43] |
Saudi Arabia | 20,000 [44] [45] [46] |
Slovakia | 7,235 [47]–20,000 [48] |
Denmark | 16,141 (2022) [49] |
Singapore | 15,000 [50] |
Belgium | 12,000–15,000 [51] |
Finland | 13,291 (2021) [52] |
Cyprus | 12,000 [53] [54] |
New Zealand | 10,086 (2018) [55] |
Switzerland | 8,000 [56] |
Hungary | 7,304 (2016) [57] |
Ukraine | 7,000 [58] [59] |
Ireland | 5,000 [60] |
Italy | 5,000 [61] |
Austria | 5,000 [62] [63] |
Romania | 3,000 [64] |
Bulgaria | 2,500 [65] |
Languages | |
Vietnamese | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Vietnamese folk religion syncretized with Mahayana Buddhism. Minorities of Christians (mostly Roman Catholics) and other groups. [66] | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Other
Vietic ethnic groups ( Gin, Muong, Chứt, Thổ peoples) |
The Vietnamese people ( Vietnamese: người Việt , lit. 'Việt people' or 'Việt humans') or the Kinh people ( Vietnamese: người Kinh , lit. 'Metropolitan people'), also called Viet people [67] or the Viets, are a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to modern-day Northern Vietnam and Guangxi's Dongxing who speak Vietnamese, a language today often classified as Austroasiatic. Some opinions say this is a mixed language. [68] [69] [70]
Vietnamese Kinh people account for just over 85.32% of the population of Vietnam in the 2019 census, and are officially designated and recognized as the Kinh people (người Kinh) by Vietnamese state to distinguish them from the other 53 recognized minority groups residing in the country such as the Hmong, Khmer, Cham, Chinese, Mường,...ect. The Vietnamese today are often considered to be one of the four main groups of " Vietic" speakers in Vietnam, the others being the Mường, Thổ, and Chứt people. Vietnamese are related to the Gin ethnicity, a recognized minority in China. They're also a recognized minority in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as Viet (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), or Keeu and Kæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam, Old Chinese *kraw) by Kra-Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages). [71]
The term " Việt" (Yue) ( Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越". [72] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang. [73] [74] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south. [73] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people. [72] [73] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue (Vietnamese: Âu Việt), Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Viet"; ). [72] [73] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC. [75] [76] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as người Việt 𠊛越 (Viet people) or người Nam 𠊛南 (southern people). [77]
Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet-Muong (northern Vietic language) with influence from a hypothetic Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, started to become what is now the Vietnamese language. [78] [79] [80] Its speakers called themselves the "Kinh" people, meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the Red River Delta with Hanoi as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京', pronounced "Jīng" in Mandarin, and "Kinh" with Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Other variants of Proto-Viet-Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called Trại (寨 Mandarin: Zhài), or "outpost" people," by the 13th century. These became the modern Mường people. [81] According to Victor Lieberman, người Kinh ( Chữ Nôm: 𠊛京) may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking. [77]
The forerunner of the Austroasiatic elements in Vietnamese language descended from a subset of Proto-Austroasiatic people who are believed to have originated around the modern borders of southern China, either around Yunnan, Lingnan, or the Yangtze River, as well as mainland Southeast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into Monic speakers, who settled further to the west, and the Khmeric speakers, who migrated further south. The Munda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice. [82] [83] [84] [85] Some linguists (James Chamberlain, Joachim Schliesinger) have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated from the North Central Region of Vietnam to the Red River Delta, which had originally been inhabited by Tai speakers. [86] [87] [88] [89] However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in Jiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the Han- Tang periods. [90] Others[ who?] have proposed that northern Vietnam and southern China were never homogeneous in terms of ethnicity and languages but were populated by people who shared similar customs. These ancient tribes did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense. [91] Attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate. [92]
Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day Bolikhamsai Province and Khammouane Province in Laos as well as in parts of Nghệ An Province and Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region. [93] Archaeogenetics demonstrated that before the Dong Son period, the Red River Delta's inhabitants were predominantly Austroasiatic: genetic data from the Phùng Nguyên culture's Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1,800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers such as the Khmer and Mlabri. [94] [95] Meanwhile, "mixed genetics" from the first Vietnamese culture, the Đông Sơn culture's Núi Nấp site, show affinity with Tai-speaking " Dai people from China, Tai-Kadai speakers from Thailand, and "Austroasiatic" speakers from Vietnam, including the Kinh" who are also genetically closely related to Tai peoples such as Thais|Thais. [96] [97]
According to the Vietnamese legend The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan (Hồng Bàng thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from the dragon lord Lạc Long Quân and the fairy Âu Cơ. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the Hùng king. [98] The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure Shen Nong. [99]
The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the Lạc (Chinese: Luo), Lạc Việt, or the Dongsonian, [100] an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai speakers occupied the Red River Delta of Northern Vietnam. [101] [102] The Lạc developed the metallurgical Đông Sơn culture and the Văn Lang chiefdom, ruled by the semi-mythical Hùng kings. [103] To the south of the Dongsonians was the Sa Huỳnh culture of the Austronesian Chamic people. [104] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc came to contact with the Âu Việt (a splinter group of Tai people) and the Sinitic people from the north. [105] According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, the leader of the Âu Việt, Thục Phán, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last Hùng king. [106] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of Âu Lạc kingdom. [103]
In 179 BC, Zhao Tuo, a Chinese general who has established the Nanyue state, a hybrid nation between Chinese people and southern Baiyue tribes, in modern-day Guangdong and Guangxi, annexed Âu Lạc, and began the Chinese political influence in Northern Vietnam that lasted in a millennium. [107] In 111 BC, the Han Empire conquered Nanyue, brought the Northern Vietnam region under Han dynasty's/Chinese rule for the first time. [108] After suppressing the Trung sisters' rebellion in 43, the Han Dynasty decided to strongly sinicize the local people and large waves of Chinese people immigrated to Vietnam from then on. [109] [110] [111] [112]. The culture of Vietnam today is part of the Sinosphere.
By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the Chinese Tang Empire ruled over the region, historians such as Henri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường and Chứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese. [113] Other argue that a Vietic migration from north central Vietnam to the Red River Delta in the seventh century replaced the original Tai-speaking inhabitants. [114] In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by Nanzhao tore the Tang Chinese rule to nearly collapse. [115] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, which historians believe that was the separation between the Mường and the Vietnamese took at the end of Tang rule in Vietnam. [113] [116] Vietnam gained semi- autonomy from the Tang Dynasty in peace in 905. In 938, the Vietnamese leader Ngô Quyền who was a native of Thanh Hóa, led Viet forces defeated the Chinese Southern Han armada at Bạch Đằng River and proclaimed himself king in 939, became the first Viet king of a de facto independent polity that now could be perceived as "Vietnamese". [117]
Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs. [118] In 968, a leader named Đinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Cồ Việt kingdom, he claimed himself as emperor. [119] With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose Hoa Lư in the southern edge of the Red River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-era Đại La, adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework. [120] The independence of Đại Cồ Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allowed it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness." [121] His government was later recognized by the Chinese Song dynasty, but Vietnam was treated as a vassal. Having its own de facto emperors helped cement Vietnam's independent identity from China when Vietnam was nominally a Chinese vassal. In 979, Emperor Đinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and Queen Dương Vân Nga married with Dinh's general Lê Hoàn, appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Song dynasty and Champa Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn. [122] A Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in Angkor. [123] Chinese writers Song Hao, Fan Chengda and Zhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing." [124] The early 11th-century Cham inscription of Chiên Đàn, My Son, erected by king of Champa Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon. [125]
The Vietnamese royal families from the Ngô, Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, and Trần and Hồ dynasties ruled the kingdom continuously from 939 to 1407. The Lý, Trần, and Hồ dynasties were all recorded to be of Chinese origin. Emperor Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from Hoa Lư to Đại La, the center of the Red River Delta in 1010. [126] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, Vietnamese music instruments, dancing and religious worshipping were influenced by both Cham, Indian and Chinese styles, [127] while Confucianism slowly gained attention and influence. [128] The earliest surviving corpus and text in the Vietnamese language dated early 12th century, and surviving chữ Nôm script inscriptions dated early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites. [129]
The Mongol Empire and later the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt (name of Vietnam) in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi. [130] The Ming dynasty of China conquered Đại Việt in 1407, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi. [131] The Later Lê dynasty was founded in 1428 following Vietnamese independence. The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars, adopted Confucianism, and transformed a Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state, and flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with gunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival Champa in 1471, then launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and Lan Na kingdoms in the 1480s. [132] Hundreds of years of territorial expansions (mainly to the south) gradually expanded Vietnam's borders and Kinh settlements, with Cambodia even briefly being part of Vietnam. Expansion also helped Vietnam's influence in the region. Vietnamese dynasties tended to favor Kinh people over ethnic minorities and impose Chinese culture on the entire kingdom/empire. Kinh chauvinism ended when Vietnam fell to French. In addition to the wars with the Mongols, the Song dynasty, the Ming Dynasty; the Vietnamese also had other a military victory against the Chinese invasion by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty in 1789.
With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Climate extremes, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart. [133] From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled on their own domains. In North Vietnam (Đàng Ngoài–outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northern Vietnam and later Cao Bang until being defeated by the Trinh lords. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm) despite also declaring loyalty to the Later Lê Dynasty. [134] Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south, settled on the old Cham lands. [135] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651, Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pages catechism in Latin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or the Vietnamese alphabet. [136] After the Manchus replaced the Ming dynasty in 1644 then conquered Southern China, waves of Chinese who were loyal to the Ming Dynasty and anti-Manchus migrated to Southern Vietnam in 1679 with encouragement of the Nguyễn lords and were later assimilated into the Kinh people. [137] [138]: 272 [137]: 3 : 6
The Vietnamese Fragmentation period ended in 1802 as Emperor Gia Long, who was a Nguyen lord aided by French volunteers defeating the Tay Son kingdoms and reunited Vietnam under the Nguyễn dynasty. Since 1804, the name "Vietnam" has been the official name of the country. Through assimilation and brutal subjugation in the 1830s by Minh Mang, a large chunk of indigenous Cham had been assimilated into Vietnamese. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor Thiệu Trị, people that identified them as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population. [139] This demographic model continues to persist through the French Indochina, Japanese occupation and modern day.
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country was separated from Nguyễn's Vietnam and became the French colony of Cochinchina. [140] By 1883, the entire country had come under French rule with the Treaty of Huế, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin (de jure parts of the Nguyễn dynasty). The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887. [141] [142] France annexed the Central Highlands and present-day Northwest Vietnam into Vietnam in 1889 and some Vietnamese people settled in the Central Highlands to spread Christianity in the region and work in rubber plantations. [143] [144] The Kinh people immigrated heavily to the region under South Vietnam and communism, leading to their numbers today far exceeding those of the indigenous population. [145] [146] [147] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society. [148] Under French rule, the Latin script replaced the Chinese characters. A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values into Vietnam. [149] Vietnam declared independence from France twice in 1945. After 1945, France and its pro-French Vietnamese government established autonomous regions for ethnic minorities in Vietnam. However the autonomous regions were abolished by South Vietnam in 1955 after Vietnam's independence from France. Communist Vietnam also abolished autonomous regions in 1978. [150]
Despite having a long recorded history of the Vietnamese language and people, the identification and distinction of 'ethnic Vietnamese' or ethnic Kinh, as well as other ethnic groups in Vietnam, were only begun by colonial administration in the late 19th and early 20th century. Following colonial government's efforts of ethnic classificating, nationalism, especially ethnonationalism and eugenic social Darwinism were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of the First Indochina War (1946–1954) between Vietnamese communists and the French Union, which resulted in the violence between the Khmers and Vietnamese in the Mekong Delta. The war also resulted in the end of French rule in Vietnam in 1954 after Paris's military defeat.
The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the division of Vietnam in 1954 and Vietnam War, a conflict between communist North Vietnam and capitalist/anti-communist South Vietnam that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Kinh Vietnamese people. The North was helped by the Soviet Union and China while the South was helped by the United States. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975 as part of the international Cold War, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the communist victory in 1975 and reunification of Vietnam in 1976, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics with the country heavily depending on the Soviet Union, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of socio-economic reforms such as the Đổi Mới policies in the late 20th century and early 21th century. Soviet-style social integrational and ethnic classification of communist Vietnam tried to build an image of diversity under the harmony of socialism, promoting the idea of the Vietnamese nation as a 'great single family' comprised by many different ethnic groups, and Vietnamese ethnic chauvinism was officially discouraged. However, the Kinh people are still the main ethnic group who have the decisive say in the country.
According to the 2019 census, the religious demographics of Vietnam are as follows: [1]
It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese may declare themselves atheist, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism. [151]
Estimates for the year 2010 published by the Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project: [152][ unreliable source?]
Pischedda et. al (2017) stated that the majority of Vietnamese carried mtDNA haplotypes that clustered in clades M7 (20%) and R9’F (27%), which is common in Southeast Asian populations. The Vietnamese also have high genetic similarities with Laotians, who assimilated the majority of Austronesian maternal lineages. Overall, the Vietnamese can be described as having heavy southern Chinese admixture, originating from Nam tiến expansions, which is superimposed to a minor Thai-Indonesian composite. [153]
Ha et. al (2019) revealed that Kinh Vietnamese cluster closely with Han Chinese and Tai peoples such as Thais but there is less genetic distance between Kinh and Thai. Whilst the study focused on northern Kinh, they were not significantly dissimilar from other Kinh in Vietnam. [154]
Like other mainland Southeast Asians, Vietnamese people have South Asian admixture (~2%-16%) which arose from Indian cultural influence in the region since the first millennium CE. Low frequencies of West Eurasian Y-haplogroups R1a-M420 and R2-M479 are found in Ede (8.3% and 4.2%) and Giarai (3.7% and 3.7%) peoples. The Cham additionally have haplogroups R-M17 (13.6%) and R-M124 (3.4%). [155]
Originally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Vietnamese have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the former Champa Kingdom and Khmer Empire over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam, and constitute a small percentage of the population in neighbouring Cambodia.
Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Vietnamese migrants in China form the Gin ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around Guangxi Province. Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in Cambodia, at 5% of the population. [156] Under the Khmer Rouge, they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.
During French colonialism, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by the French colonial powers, and the Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in French Indochina. [157] As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during World War I and World War II, when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world. [158]
When Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954, a number of Vietnamese loyal to the colonial government also migrated to France. During the partition of Vietnam into North and South, a number of South Vietnamese students also arrived to study in France, along with individuals involved in commerce for trade with France, which was a principal economic partner with South Vietnam. [158]
Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced the Vietnamese population in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984. [159]
The fall of Saigon and end of the Vietnam War prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international humanitarian crisis, many countries accepted Vietnamese refugees, primarily the United States, France, Australia and Canada. [160] Meanwhile, under the new communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in Eastern Bloc countries of Central and Eastern Europe as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development. [161] However, after the fall of the Berlin Wall and fall of communism, a vast majority of these overseas Vietnamese decided to remain in their host nations.[ citation needed]
Historically Vietnamese literature was initially written in Chinese characters and then chữ Nôm (Vietnamese variant of Chinese characters). Since the 1920s, literature has been mainly composed in the a type of the Latin script (de facto script of Vietnam today) with profound renovations in form and category such as novels, new-style poems, short stories and dramas, and with diversity in artistic tendency. Written literature attained speedy development after the August Revolution, when it was directed by the Vietnamese Communist Party's guideline and focused on the people's fighting and work life.[ citation needed] Classical literature include Truyện Kiều (The Tale of Kieu) ( Nguyễn Du), Cung Oán Ngâm Khúc (Complaint of a Palace Maid) ( Nguyễn Gia Thiều), Chinh phụ ngâm (Lament of the soldier's wife) ( Đặng Trần Côn), and Quốc âm Thi Tập (Poetry Collection) ( Nguyễn Trãi), all of which are transliterated or annotated in chữ Quốc ngữ. Some famous female poets include Hồ Xuân Hương, Đoàn Thị Điểm, and Bà Huyện Thanh Quan.[ citation needed] Modern Vietnamese literature has developed from romanticism to realism, from heroism in wartime to all aspects of life, and developed into ordinary life of the Vietnamese.[ citation needed] Modern Vietnamese fables have recently been introduced in English as well. [162] Historically, Vietnamese poetry consists of three language traditions. Each poetry was written exclusively in Classical Chinese and later incorporated Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. It was also often centered around the themes and traditions of Buddhism and Confucianism. [163] [164] This style of poetry remained prominent until the 13th century. Thereafter, poetry and literature in the Vietnamese language emerged as the primary rival to literature written in Classical Chinese in Vietnam. Traditional Vietnamese art is a part of art practiced in Vietnam or by Vietnamese artists, from ancient times (including the elaborate Đông Sơn drums) to post- Chinese domination art which was strongly influenced by Chinese Buddhist art, as well as Taoism and Confucianism. In the past, when literacy in the old character-based writing systems of were restricted to Vietnamese scholars, calligraphy nevertheless still played an important part in Vietnamese life. On special occasions such as Lunar New Year, people would go to scholars to make them a calligraphy hanging (often poetry, folk sayings or even single words).
Vietnam has some 50 national music instruments, in which the set of percussion instruments is the most popular, diverse and long-lasting such as đàn đáy, đàn tranh, đàn nhị, đàn bầu...The set of blowing instruments is represented by flutes and pan-pipes, while the set of string instruments is specified by đàn bầu and đàn đáy. Vietnamese folksongs are rich in forms and melodies of regions across the country, ranging from ngâm thơ (reciting poems), hát ru (lullaby), hò (chanty) to hát quan họ, trong quan, xoan, dum, ví giặm, ca Huế, bài chòi, ly. Apart from this, there are also other forms like hát xẩm, chầu văn, and ca trù. Vietnamese theatre includes Hát tuồng, Cải lương, and Hát chèo. Water puppetry (Múa rối nước), is a distinct Vietnamese art form which had its origins in the 10th century and very popular in northern region. Among the ethnic Vietnamese majority, there are several traditional dances performed widely at festivals and other special occasions, such as the lion dance. In the imperial court, there also developed throughout the centuries a series of complex court dances which require great skill. Some of the more widely known are the imperial lantern dance, fan dance, and platter dance, among others.
Vietnamese silk painting is one of the most popular forms of art in Vietnam, favored for the mystical atmosphere that can be achieved with the medium. During the 19th and 20th centuries, French influence was absorbed into Vietnamese art and the liberal and modern use of color especially began to differentiate Vietnamese silk paintings from their Chinese, Japanese and Korean counterparts. [165] Vietnamese silk paintings typically showcase the countryside, landscapes, pagodas, historical events or scenes of daily life. A folk art with a long history in Vietnam, Vietnamese woodblock prints have reached a level of popularity outside of Vietnam. [166] Organic materials are used to make the paint, which is applied to wood and pressed on paper. The process is repeated with different colors.
In traditional Vietnamese culture, kinship plays an important role in Vietnam. Whilst Western culture is known for its emphasis on individualism, Vietnamese culture places value on the roles of family. For specific information, see Vietnamese pronouns. In current rural Vietnam, one can still see three or four generations living under one roof.
Vietnamese martial arts are deeply spiritual due to the influence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, and are strongly reliant on the " Việt Võ Đạo" (philosophy of Vietnamese martial arts).
Vietnamese cuisine is extremely diverse, often divided into three main categories, each pertaining to Vietnam's three main regions (north, central and south). It uses very little oil and many vegetables, and is mainly based on rice and fish sauce. Its characteristic flavors are sweet ( sugar), spicy ( Bird's eye chili), sour ( lime), nước mắm ( fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mint and basil. Chopsticks (Vietnamese: đũa, chữ Nôm: 𥮊 or 𥯖) are a common utensil in Vietnam. [167]
Among the traditional Vietnamese holidays, the two most important and widely celebrated are the Tết Nguyên Đán, followed by the Tết Trung Thu. Besides folk religion, religion in Vietnam has historically been a mix of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, known in Vietnamese as the Tam Giáo ("the three religions"). [168] Some elements considered to be unique of Vietnamese culture include ancestor veneration and respect for community and family. [169] When a death occurs in a Vietnamese household, the family members of the deceased would hold a wake ceremony or vigil that typically lasts for approximately five to six days. The surviving family wear coarse gauze turbans and tunics for the funeral.
The most popular and widely recognized Vietnamese national costume is the áo dài.
It is estimated that there are up to 150,000 Vietnamese migrants in Russia, but the vast majority of them are undocumented.
The 2021 data published by the Foreigners' Police reveals that 7,235 people from Vietnam have permanent or temporary residence in the country.
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Original Old Cam text: ...(pa)kā ra vuḥ kmīra yvan· si mak· nan· di yām̃ hajai tralauṅ· svon· dadam̃n· sthāna tra ra vuḥ urām̃ dinan· pajem̃ karadā yam̃ di nagara campa.
[Pavie] signed with Deo Van Tri .. a Protectorate treaty on 7 April 1889... The hereditary leader of the Sip Song Chau Tai was from now on to be referred to in French official documents as the Seigneur de Lai Chau, the Lord of Lai Chau, after the name of the town lying at the heart of his domain.
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ProQuest Dissertations and Theses), Volume : 68-12, Section: A, page: 5117 Adviser: Katherine A. Bowie
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|
người Việt / người Kinh | |
---|---|
Total population | |
c. 89 million | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Vietnam | 82,085,826 ( 2019) [1] |
United States | 2,183,000 (2019) [2] |
Cambodia | 400,000–1,000,000 [3] |
Japan | 565,026 (2023) [4] |
France | 300,000 [5]–350,000 [6] [7] |
Australia | 334,781 ( 2021) [8] |
Canada | 275,530 ( 2021) [9] |
Taiwan | 259,375 (2024) [a]–470,000 [18] [19] |
Germany | 215,000 (2024) [20] |
South Korea | 209,373 (2022) [b] |
Russia | 13,954 [22]–150,000 [23] |
Thailand | 100,000 [24] [25]–500,000 [26] |
Laos | 100,000 [27] |
United Kingdom | 90,000 [28]–100,000 [29] [30] |
Malaysia | 80,000 [31] |
Czech Republic | 60,000–80,000 [32] |
Poland | 40,000–50,000 [32] |
Angola | 40,000 [33] [34] |
Mainland China | 42,000 [35] [36]–303,000 [37] [c]/33,112 ( 2020) [38] [d] |
Norway | 28,114 (2022) [39] |
Netherlands | 24,594 (2021) [40] |
Sweden | 21,528 (2021) [41] |
Macau | 20,000 (2018) [42] |
United Arab Emirates | 20,000 [43] |
Saudi Arabia | 20,000 [44] [45] [46] |
Slovakia | 7,235 [47]–20,000 [48] |
Denmark | 16,141 (2022) [49] |
Singapore | 15,000 [50] |
Belgium | 12,000–15,000 [51] |
Finland | 13,291 (2021) [52] |
Cyprus | 12,000 [53] [54] |
New Zealand | 10,086 (2018) [55] |
Switzerland | 8,000 [56] |
Hungary | 7,304 (2016) [57] |
Ukraine | 7,000 [58] [59] |
Ireland | 5,000 [60] |
Italy | 5,000 [61] |
Austria | 5,000 [62] [63] |
Romania | 3,000 [64] |
Bulgaria | 2,500 [65] |
Languages | |
Vietnamese | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Vietnamese folk religion syncretized with Mahayana Buddhism. Minorities of Christians (mostly Roman Catholics) and other groups. [66] | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Other
Vietic ethnic groups ( Gin, Muong, Chứt, Thổ peoples) |
The Vietnamese people ( Vietnamese: người Việt , lit. 'Việt people' or 'Việt humans') or the Kinh people ( Vietnamese: người Kinh , lit. 'Metropolitan people'), also called Viet people [67] or the Viets, are a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to modern-day Northern Vietnam and Guangxi's Dongxing who speak Vietnamese, a language today often classified as Austroasiatic. Some opinions say this is a mixed language. [68] [69] [70]
Vietnamese Kinh people account for just over 85.32% of the population of Vietnam in the 2019 census, and are officially designated and recognized as the Kinh people (người Kinh) by Vietnamese state to distinguish them from the other 53 recognized minority groups residing in the country such as the Hmong, Khmer, Cham, Chinese, Mường,...ect. The Vietnamese today are often considered to be one of the four main groups of " Vietic" speakers in Vietnam, the others being the Mường, Thổ, and Chứt people. Vietnamese are related to the Gin ethnicity, a recognized minority in China. They're also a recognized minority in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as Viet (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), or Keeu and Kæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam, Old Chinese *kraw) by Kra-Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages). [71]
The term " Việt" (Yue) ( Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越". [72] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang. [73] [74] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south. [73] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people. [72] [73] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue (Vietnamese: Âu Việt), Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; "Hundred Yue/Viet"; ). [72] [73] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC. [75] [76] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as người Việt 𠊛越 (Viet people) or người Nam 𠊛南 (southern people). [77]
Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet-Muong (northern Vietic language) with influence from a hypothetic Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, started to become what is now the Vietnamese language. [78] [79] [80] Its speakers called themselves the "Kinh" people, meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the Red River Delta with Hanoi as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京', pronounced "Jīng" in Mandarin, and "Kinh" with Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Other variants of Proto-Viet-Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called Trại (寨 Mandarin: Zhài), or "outpost" people," by the 13th century. These became the modern Mường people. [81] According to Victor Lieberman, người Kinh ( Chữ Nôm: 𠊛京) may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking. [77]
The forerunner of the Austroasiatic elements in Vietnamese language descended from a subset of Proto-Austroasiatic people who are believed to have originated around the modern borders of southern China, either around Yunnan, Lingnan, or the Yangtze River, as well as mainland Southeast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into Monic speakers, who settled further to the west, and the Khmeric speakers, who migrated further south. The Munda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice. [82] [83] [84] [85] Some linguists (James Chamberlain, Joachim Schliesinger) have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated from the North Central Region of Vietnam to the Red River Delta, which had originally been inhabited by Tai speakers. [86] [87] [88] [89] However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in Jiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the Han- Tang periods. [90] Others[ who?] have proposed that northern Vietnam and southern China were never homogeneous in terms of ethnicity and languages but were populated by people who shared similar customs. These ancient tribes did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense. [91] Attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate. [92]
Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day Bolikhamsai Province and Khammouane Province in Laos as well as in parts of Nghệ An Province and Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region. [93] Archaeogenetics demonstrated that before the Dong Son period, the Red River Delta's inhabitants were predominantly Austroasiatic: genetic data from the Phùng Nguyên culture's Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1,800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers such as the Khmer and Mlabri. [94] [95] Meanwhile, "mixed genetics" from the first Vietnamese culture, the Đông Sơn culture's Núi Nấp site, show affinity with Tai-speaking " Dai people from China, Tai-Kadai speakers from Thailand, and "Austroasiatic" speakers from Vietnam, including the Kinh" who are also genetically closely related to Tai peoples such as Thais|Thais. [96] [97]
According to the Vietnamese legend The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan (Hồng Bàng thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from the dragon lord Lạc Long Quân and the fairy Âu Cơ. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the Hùng king. [98] The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure Shen Nong. [99]
The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the Lạc (Chinese: Luo), Lạc Việt, or the Dongsonian, [100] an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai speakers occupied the Red River Delta of Northern Vietnam. [101] [102] The Lạc developed the metallurgical Đông Sơn culture and the Văn Lang chiefdom, ruled by the semi-mythical Hùng kings. [103] To the south of the Dongsonians was the Sa Huỳnh culture of the Austronesian Chamic people. [104] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc came to contact with the Âu Việt (a splinter group of Tai people) and the Sinitic people from the north. [105] According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, the leader of the Âu Việt, Thục Phán, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last Hùng king. [106] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of Âu Lạc kingdom. [103]
In 179 BC, Zhao Tuo, a Chinese general who has established the Nanyue state, a hybrid nation between Chinese people and southern Baiyue tribes, in modern-day Guangdong and Guangxi, annexed Âu Lạc, and began the Chinese political influence in Northern Vietnam that lasted in a millennium. [107] In 111 BC, the Han Empire conquered Nanyue, brought the Northern Vietnam region under Han dynasty's/Chinese rule for the first time. [108] After suppressing the Trung sisters' rebellion in 43, the Han Dynasty decided to strongly sinicize the local people and large waves of Chinese people immigrated to Vietnam from then on. [109] [110] [111] [112]. The culture of Vietnam today is part of the Sinosphere.
By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the Chinese Tang Empire ruled over the region, historians such as Henri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường and Chứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese. [113] Other argue that a Vietic migration from north central Vietnam to the Red River Delta in the seventh century replaced the original Tai-speaking inhabitants. [114] In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by Nanzhao tore the Tang Chinese rule to nearly collapse. [115] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, which historians believe that was the separation between the Mường and the Vietnamese took at the end of Tang rule in Vietnam. [113] [116] Vietnam gained semi- autonomy from the Tang Dynasty in peace in 905. In 938, the Vietnamese leader Ngô Quyền who was a native of Thanh Hóa, led Viet forces defeated the Chinese Southern Han armada at Bạch Đằng River and proclaimed himself king in 939, became the first Viet king of a de facto independent polity that now could be perceived as "Vietnamese". [117]
Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs. [118] In 968, a leader named Đinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Cồ Việt kingdom, he claimed himself as emperor. [119] With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose Hoa Lư in the southern edge of the Red River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-era Đại La, adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework. [120] The independence of Đại Cồ Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allowed it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness." [121] His government was later recognized by the Chinese Song dynasty, but Vietnam was treated as a vassal. Having its own de facto emperors helped cement Vietnam's independent identity from China when Vietnam was nominally a Chinese vassal. In 979, Emperor Đinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and Queen Dương Vân Nga married with Dinh's general Lê Hoàn, appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Song dynasty and Champa Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn. [122] A Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in Angkor. [123] Chinese writers Song Hao, Fan Chengda and Zhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing." [124] The early 11th-century Cham inscription of Chiên Đàn, My Son, erected by king of Champa Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon. [125]
The Vietnamese royal families from the Ngô, Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, and Trần and Hồ dynasties ruled the kingdom continuously from 939 to 1407. The Lý, Trần, and Hồ dynasties were all recorded to be of Chinese origin. Emperor Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from Hoa Lư to Đại La, the center of the Red River Delta in 1010. [126] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, Vietnamese music instruments, dancing and religious worshipping were influenced by both Cham, Indian and Chinese styles, [127] while Confucianism slowly gained attention and influence. [128] The earliest surviving corpus and text in the Vietnamese language dated early 12th century, and surviving chữ Nôm script inscriptions dated early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites. [129]
The Mongol Empire and later the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt (name of Vietnam) in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi. [130] The Ming dynasty of China conquered Đại Việt in 1407, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi. [131] The Later Lê dynasty was founded in 1428 following Vietnamese independence. The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars, adopted Confucianism, and transformed a Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state, and flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with gunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival Champa in 1471, then launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and Lan Na kingdoms in the 1480s. [132] Hundreds of years of territorial expansions (mainly to the south) gradually expanded Vietnam's borders and Kinh settlements, with Cambodia even briefly being part of Vietnam. Expansion also helped Vietnam's influence in the region. Vietnamese dynasties tended to favor Kinh people over ethnic minorities and impose Chinese culture on the entire kingdom/empire. Kinh chauvinism ended when Vietnam fell to French. In addition to the wars with the Mongols, the Song dynasty, the Ming Dynasty; the Vietnamese also had other a military victory against the Chinese invasion by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty in 1789.
With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Climate extremes, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart. [133] From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled on their own domains. In North Vietnam (Đàng Ngoài–outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northern Vietnam and later Cao Bang until being defeated by the Trinh lords. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm) despite also declaring loyalty to the Later Lê Dynasty. [134] Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south, settled on the old Cham lands. [135] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651, Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pages catechism in Latin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or the Vietnamese alphabet. [136] After the Manchus replaced the Ming dynasty in 1644 then conquered Southern China, waves of Chinese who were loyal to the Ming Dynasty and anti-Manchus migrated to Southern Vietnam in 1679 with encouragement of the Nguyễn lords and were later assimilated into the Kinh people. [137] [138]: 272 [137]: 3 : 6
The Vietnamese Fragmentation period ended in 1802 as Emperor Gia Long, who was a Nguyen lord aided by French volunteers defeating the Tay Son kingdoms and reunited Vietnam under the Nguyễn dynasty. Since 1804, the name "Vietnam" has been the official name of the country. Through assimilation and brutal subjugation in the 1830s by Minh Mang, a large chunk of indigenous Cham had been assimilated into Vietnamese. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor Thiệu Trị, people that identified them as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population. [139] This demographic model continues to persist through the French Indochina, Japanese occupation and modern day.
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country was separated from Nguyễn's Vietnam and became the French colony of Cochinchina. [140] By 1883, the entire country had come under French rule with the Treaty of Huế, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two French protectorates of Annam and Tonkin (de jure parts of the Nguyễn dynasty). The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887. [141] [142] France annexed the Central Highlands and present-day Northwest Vietnam into Vietnam in 1889 and some Vietnamese people settled in the Central Highlands to spread Christianity in the region and work in rubber plantations. [143] [144] The Kinh people immigrated heavily to the region under South Vietnam and communism, leading to their numbers today far exceeding those of the indigenous population. [145] [146] [147] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society. [148] Under French rule, the Latin script replaced the Chinese characters. A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values into Vietnam. [149] Vietnam declared independence from France twice in 1945. After 1945, France and its pro-French Vietnamese government established autonomous regions for ethnic minorities in Vietnam. However the autonomous regions were abolished by South Vietnam in 1955 after Vietnam's independence from France. Communist Vietnam also abolished autonomous regions in 1978. [150]
Despite having a long recorded history of the Vietnamese language and people, the identification and distinction of 'ethnic Vietnamese' or ethnic Kinh, as well as other ethnic groups in Vietnam, were only begun by colonial administration in the late 19th and early 20th century. Following colonial government's efforts of ethnic classificating, nationalism, especially ethnonationalism and eugenic social Darwinism were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of the First Indochina War (1946–1954) between Vietnamese communists and the French Union, which resulted in the violence between the Khmers and Vietnamese in the Mekong Delta. The war also resulted in the end of French rule in Vietnam in 1954 after Paris's military defeat.
The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the division of Vietnam in 1954 and Vietnam War, a conflict between communist North Vietnam and capitalist/anti-communist South Vietnam that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Kinh Vietnamese people. The North was helped by the Soviet Union and China while the South was helped by the United States. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975 as part of the international Cold War, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the communist victory in 1975 and reunification of Vietnam in 1976, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics with the country heavily depending on the Soviet Union, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of socio-economic reforms such as the Đổi Mới policies in the late 20th century and early 21th century. Soviet-style social integrational and ethnic classification of communist Vietnam tried to build an image of diversity under the harmony of socialism, promoting the idea of the Vietnamese nation as a 'great single family' comprised by many different ethnic groups, and Vietnamese ethnic chauvinism was officially discouraged. However, the Kinh people are still the main ethnic group who have the decisive say in the country.
According to the 2019 census, the religious demographics of Vietnam are as follows: [1]
It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese may declare themselves atheist, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism. [151]
Estimates for the year 2010 published by the Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project: [152][ unreliable source?]
Pischedda et. al (2017) stated that the majority of Vietnamese carried mtDNA haplotypes that clustered in clades M7 (20%) and R9’F (27%), which is common in Southeast Asian populations. The Vietnamese also have high genetic similarities with Laotians, who assimilated the majority of Austronesian maternal lineages. Overall, the Vietnamese can be described as having heavy southern Chinese admixture, originating from Nam tiến expansions, which is superimposed to a minor Thai-Indonesian composite. [153]
Ha et. al (2019) revealed that Kinh Vietnamese cluster closely with Han Chinese and Tai peoples such as Thais but there is less genetic distance between Kinh and Thai. Whilst the study focused on northern Kinh, they were not significantly dissimilar from other Kinh in Vietnam. [154]
Like other mainland Southeast Asians, Vietnamese people have South Asian admixture (~2%-16%) which arose from Indian cultural influence in the region since the first millennium CE. Low frequencies of West Eurasian Y-haplogroups R1a-M420 and R2-M479 are found in Ede (8.3% and 4.2%) and Giarai (3.7% and 3.7%) peoples. The Cham additionally have haplogroups R-M17 (13.6%) and R-M124 (3.4%). [155]
Originally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Vietnamese have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the former Champa Kingdom and Khmer Empire over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam, and constitute a small percentage of the population in neighbouring Cambodia.
Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Vietnamese migrants in China form the Gin ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around Guangxi Province. Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in Cambodia, at 5% of the population. [156] Under the Khmer Rouge, they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.
During French colonialism, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by the French colonial powers, and the Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in French Indochina. [157] As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during World War I and World War II, when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world. [158]
When Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954, a number of Vietnamese loyal to the colonial government also migrated to France. During the partition of Vietnam into North and South, a number of South Vietnamese students also arrived to study in France, along with individuals involved in commerce for trade with France, which was a principal economic partner with South Vietnam. [158]
Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced the Vietnamese population in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984. [159]
The fall of Saigon and end of the Vietnam War prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international humanitarian crisis, many countries accepted Vietnamese refugees, primarily the United States, France, Australia and Canada. [160] Meanwhile, under the new communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in Eastern Bloc countries of Central and Eastern Europe as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development. [161] However, after the fall of the Berlin Wall and fall of communism, a vast majority of these overseas Vietnamese decided to remain in their host nations.[ citation needed]
Historically Vietnamese literature was initially written in Chinese characters and then chữ Nôm (Vietnamese variant of Chinese characters). Since the 1920s, literature has been mainly composed in the a type of the Latin script (de facto script of Vietnam today) with profound renovations in form and category such as novels, new-style poems, short stories and dramas, and with diversity in artistic tendency. Written literature attained speedy development after the August Revolution, when it was directed by the Vietnamese Communist Party's guideline and focused on the people's fighting and work life.[ citation needed] Classical literature include Truyện Kiều (The Tale of Kieu) ( Nguyễn Du), Cung Oán Ngâm Khúc (Complaint of a Palace Maid) ( Nguyễn Gia Thiều), Chinh phụ ngâm (Lament of the soldier's wife) ( Đặng Trần Côn), and Quốc âm Thi Tập (Poetry Collection) ( Nguyễn Trãi), all of which are transliterated or annotated in chữ Quốc ngữ. Some famous female poets include Hồ Xuân Hương, Đoàn Thị Điểm, and Bà Huyện Thanh Quan.[ citation needed] Modern Vietnamese literature has developed from romanticism to realism, from heroism in wartime to all aspects of life, and developed into ordinary life of the Vietnamese.[ citation needed] Modern Vietnamese fables have recently been introduced in English as well. [162] Historically, Vietnamese poetry consists of three language traditions. Each poetry was written exclusively in Classical Chinese and later incorporated Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. It was also often centered around the themes and traditions of Buddhism and Confucianism. [163] [164] This style of poetry remained prominent until the 13th century. Thereafter, poetry and literature in the Vietnamese language emerged as the primary rival to literature written in Classical Chinese in Vietnam. Traditional Vietnamese art is a part of art practiced in Vietnam or by Vietnamese artists, from ancient times (including the elaborate Đông Sơn drums) to post- Chinese domination art which was strongly influenced by Chinese Buddhist art, as well as Taoism and Confucianism. In the past, when literacy in the old character-based writing systems of were restricted to Vietnamese scholars, calligraphy nevertheless still played an important part in Vietnamese life. On special occasions such as Lunar New Year, people would go to scholars to make them a calligraphy hanging (often poetry, folk sayings or even single words).
Vietnam has some 50 national music instruments, in which the set of percussion instruments is the most popular, diverse and long-lasting such as đàn đáy, đàn tranh, đàn nhị, đàn bầu...The set of blowing instruments is represented by flutes and pan-pipes, while the set of string instruments is specified by đàn bầu and đàn đáy. Vietnamese folksongs are rich in forms and melodies of regions across the country, ranging from ngâm thơ (reciting poems), hát ru (lullaby), hò (chanty) to hát quan họ, trong quan, xoan, dum, ví giặm, ca Huế, bài chòi, ly. Apart from this, there are also other forms like hát xẩm, chầu văn, and ca trù. Vietnamese theatre includes Hát tuồng, Cải lương, and Hát chèo. Water puppetry (Múa rối nước), is a distinct Vietnamese art form which had its origins in the 10th century and very popular in northern region. Among the ethnic Vietnamese majority, there are several traditional dances performed widely at festivals and other special occasions, such as the lion dance. In the imperial court, there also developed throughout the centuries a series of complex court dances which require great skill. Some of the more widely known are the imperial lantern dance, fan dance, and platter dance, among others.
Vietnamese silk painting is one of the most popular forms of art in Vietnam, favored for the mystical atmosphere that can be achieved with the medium. During the 19th and 20th centuries, French influence was absorbed into Vietnamese art and the liberal and modern use of color especially began to differentiate Vietnamese silk paintings from their Chinese, Japanese and Korean counterparts. [165] Vietnamese silk paintings typically showcase the countryside, landscapes, pagodas, historical events or scenes of daily life. A folk art with a long history in Vietnam, Vietnamese woodblock prints have reached a level of popularity outside of Vietnam. [166] Organic materials are used to make the paint, which is applied to wood and pressed on paper. The process is repeated with different colors.
In traditional Vietnamese culture, kinship plays an important role in Vietnam. Whilst Western culture is known for its emphasis on individualism, Vietnamese culture places value on the roles of family. For specific information, see Vietnamese pronouns. In current rural Vietnam, one can still see three or four generations living under one roof.
Vietnamese martial arts are deeply spiritual due to the influence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, and are strongly reliant on the " Việt Võ Đạo" (philosophy of Vietnamese martial arts).
Vietnamese cuisine is extremely diverse, often divided into three main categories, each pertaining to Vietnam's three main regions (north, central and south). It uses very little oil and many vegetables, and is mainly based on rice and fish sauce. Its characteristic flavors are sweet ( sugar), spicy ( Bird's eye chili), sour ( lime), nước mắm ( fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mint and basil. Chopsticks (Vietnamese: đũa, chữ Nôm: 𥮊 or 𥯖) are a common utensil in Vietnam. [167]
Among the traditional Vietnamese holidays, the two most important and widely celebrated are the Tết Nguyên Đán, followed by the Tết Trung Thu. Besides folk religion, religion in Vietnam has historically been a mix of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, known in Vietnamese as the Tam Giáo ("the three religions"). [168] Some elements considered to be unique of Vietnamese culture include ancestor veneration and respect for community and family. [169] When a death occurs in a Vietnamese household, the family members of the deceased would hold a wake ceremony or vigil that typically lasts for approximately five to six days. The surviving family wear coarse gauze turbans and tunics for the funeral.
The most popular and widely recognized Vietnamese national costume is the áo dài.
It is estimated that there are up to 150,000 Vietnamese migrants in Russia, but the vast majority of them are undocumented.
The 2021 data published by the Foreigners' Police reveals that 7,235 people from Vietnam have permanent or temporary residence in the country.
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