Epicoccum nigrum | |
---|---|
![]() | |
E. nigrum growing on Lycoperdon pyriforme | |
Scientific classification
![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Ascomycota |
Class: | Dothideomycetes |
Order: | Pleosporales |
Family: | Didymellaceae |
Genus: | Epicoccum |
Species: | E. nigrum
|
Binomial name | |
Epicoccum nigrum Link
| |
Synonyms | |
Epicoccum purpurascens Ehrenb. |
Epicoccum nigrum is a species of fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. A plant pathogen and endophyte, it is a widespread fungus which produces coloured pigments that can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi. The fluorescent stain epicocconone is extracted from it.
Epicoccum nigrum (1825) is a fungus with no known teleomorph form. [1] It has been classified as a member of the Hyphomycetes, [2] in the Deuteromycota, as well as the Fungi Imperfecti because it is only known to reproduce asexually. Despite that it is not yeast-like, it has been included in the broad, unrelated category of fungi known as black yeasts. [2] The fungus grows felty colonies in bright shades of yellow, orange, and red, often with brown or black throughout. [1] [2] Colonies grow quickly, reaching about 6 cm in diameter in 2 days at room temperature. [1] Mycelia contain both chitin and cellulose. [1]
Epicoccum nigrum forms blastoconidia that are darkly coloured, warted and spherical, reaching 15 to 25 μm in diameter. [1] Conidia grow on a sporodochium, formed by warty and fibrous hyphae. [1] [3] Sporets have been found to contain up to 15 cells. [4] The spores of E. nigrum are actively released depending on temperature, light, and relative humidity conditions. [5] The mechanism of release involves the separation of the conidium from the sporodochium via a double septum. It capitalizes on the spherical shape of the conidia, allowing it to "bounce" off the sporodochium. [6] Conidia then become airborne with movement or wind. [7] Sporulation is induced under Wood's light, or sometimes upon exposure to cold temperatures with a subsequent return to room temperature. [1] Pigment production is also sensitive to light and temperature changes. [8] Ideal growth temperatures range between 23–28 °C (73–82 °F), and ideal growth pH ranges from 5.0 to 6.0. [1] Although E. nigrum will grow in a range of water activity (aw of 0.99 to 0.97), [9] growth is optimized at water vapour saturation. [1]
Epicoccum nigrum produces a variety of biomedically and industrially useful metabolites, including important antifungal agents and pigments, including: flavipin, epicorazines A and B, epirodin, epicocconone, and a variety of carotenoid pigments. [10] [11] Epicoccum nigrum has also been utilized in the biosynthetic manufacture of silver- and gold nanoparticles. [12] [13]
A highly robust and ubiquitous fungus, [14] E. nigrum has an almost global spread, occurring in the Americas, Asia, and Europe. [1] Spores of E. nigrum have been cultured from a variety of environments, predominantly soil (i.e. peat, forest floor, raw humus, compost, tundra, sewage) [1] and sand (e.g., dunes, saline sands). [1] [15] It is a saprophytic fungus, forming pustules (composed of sporodochia and conidia) on dead and dying plants. [4] This species is commonly found growing on cereals and seeds, as well as other crops including corn, beans, potatoes, peas and peaches. [1] [16] It has been found to grow colonies on leaves submersed in water as cold as 0 °C (32 °F), and is considered a facultative marine fungus. [17] It is capable of colonizing algae and marsh grasses. [17] In indoor environments, E. nigrum has been found on paintings and wallpaper, [18] cotton and textiles, [1] [4] in dust, [16] [18] and in air. [1] [16] [19] [20] It is tolerant of changes in water availability, and hyphal growth has been found to resume within an hour of exposure to water. [17]
Epicoccum nigrum has a wide array of medical, industrial, and agricultural applications. It produces a variety of pigmented and non-pigmented antifungal and antibacterial compounds. [11] [21] These antimicrobial compounds are effective against other fungi and bacteria present in soil. [11] Flavipin, and epirodins A and B are pigmented antifungal agents; [10] [11] non-pigmented compounds include epicorazines A and B. [11] Endophytic fungi such as E. nigrum are being explored as alternative sources of antibiotics to treat important resistant infections. [22] Polysaccharide antioxidants are also produced by E. nigrum. [23] Epicocconone is a fluorescent pigment unique to E. nigrum. [24] Epicocconone is valuable in terms of its ability to pigment cells orange, which then fluoresce red without impacting cell structure or function. [24]
Industrially, E. nigrum has a variety of broad applications. It has demonstrated a capacity to biosynthesize nanoparticles from silver and gold, which have applications in chemical, industrial, and medical processes. [12] [13] It has been applied as biological treatment for mechanical oily effluent, reducing the content of hydrogen peroxide, phenols, and chemical oxygen demand in the oily effluent. [25] Epicoccum nigrum pigments have been considered as natural replacements for artificial pigments currently used in food. [26] It produces a variety of pigments, ranging from darker oranges to yellows and greens. [26] These pigments were synthesized by nonpathogenic strains of E. nigrum. [26]
In Brazil, E. nigrum is used to support root growth and control sugarcane pathogens. [27] It is a biocontrol antifungal agent active against brown rot in stone fruit, caused the species Monilinia laxa and Monilinia fructigena. [28] In contrast to these uses for E. nigrum metabolites, there has been an investigation into methods of controlling E. nigrum fungal colonies that have contaminated historic and cultural artifacts. [29] The fungus was found to be quite sensitive to essential oils from plants such as lavender and rosemary. [29] This is important in terms of the preservation of artifacts in humid climates, where fungal growth is an important determinant in the deterioration of stone structures and wood frames. [29]
Epicoccum nigrum produces the glycoprotein allergen Epi p 1 which binds to IgE, sometimes cross-reacting with other fungal allergens. [16] Cross-reactivity was found to exist with Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Cladosporium herbarum, and Penicillium citrinum. [30] Epicoccum nigrum is associated with respiratory fungal allergies, including allergic asthma, rhinitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and allergic fungal sinusitis. [16] [31] Two pediatric cases of hypersensitivity pneumonitis caused by E. nigrum were reported in children living in a damp and mouldy home, with daily exposure to E. nigrum in the shower. [32] The fungus has been found on human skin and in spit samples. [1] It does not typically cause systemic infection, although one case has been reported in an immunocompromised patient. [33]
Epicoccum nigrum has been treated under a variety of names in the genus Epicoccum. It was first identified in 1815 by botanist Johaan Heinrich Friedrich Link. [34] Today, all previously identified species are considered to be different variants of the species E. nigrum. [4] These include: E. purpurascens, E. diversisporum, E. versicolor, E. vulgare, E. granulatum, E. menispermi, and E. neglectum. [4] [34] More recently, two distinct genotypes for E. nigrum have been identified with the combined use of DNA sequencing, morphology, physiology, and recombination factors. [35] This indicates the existence of cryptic species, and a subsequent call to re-classify E. nigrum into more than one species. [35]
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Epicoccum nigrum | |
---|---|
![]() | |
E. nigrum growing on Lycoperdon pyriforme | |
Scientific classification
![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Ascomycota |
Class: | Dothideomycetes |
Order: | Pleosporales |
Family: | Didymellaceae |
Genus: | Epicoccum |
Species: | E. nigrum
|
Binomial name | |
Epicoccum nigrum Link
| |
Synonyms | |
Epicoccum purpurascens Ehrenb. |
Epicoccum nigrum is a species of fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. A plant pathogen and endophyte, it is a widespread fungus which produces coloured pigments that can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi. The fluorescent stain epicocconone is extracted from it.
Epicoccum nigrum (1825) is a fungus with no known teleomorph form. [1] It has been classified as a member of the Hyphomycetes, [2] in the Deuteromycota, as well as the Fungi Imperfecti because it is only known to reproduce asexually. Despite that it is not yeast-like, it has been included in the broad, unrelated category of fungi known as black yeasts. [2] The fungus grows felty colonies in bright shades of yellow, orange, and red, often with brown or black throughout. [1] [2] Colonies grow quickly, reaching about 6 cm in diameter in 2 days at room temperature. [1] Mycelia contain both chitin and cellulose. [1]
Epicoccum nigrum forms blastoconidia that are darkly coloured, warted and spherical, reaching 15 to 25 μm in diameter. [1] Conidia grow on a sporodochium, formed by warty and fibrous hyphae. [1] [3] Sporets have been found to contain up to 15 cells. [4] The spores of E. nigrum are actively released depending on temperature, light, and relative humidity conditions. [5] The mechanism of release involves the separation of the conidium from the sporodochium via a double septum. It capitalizes on the spherical shape of the conidia, allowing it to "bounce" off the sporodochium. [6] Conidia then become airborne with movement or wind. [7] Sporulation is induced under Wood's light, or sometimes upon exposure to cold temperatures with a subsequent return to room temperature. [1] Pigment production is also sensitive to light and temperature changes. [8] Ideal growth temperatures range between 23–28 °C (73–82 °F), and ideal growth pH ranges from 5.0 to 6.0. [1] Although E. nigrum will grow in a range of water activity (aw of 0.99 to 0.97), [9] growth is optimized at water vapour saturation. [1]
Epicoccum nigrum produces a variety of biomedically and industrially useful metabolites, including important antifungal agents and pigments, including: flavipin, epicorazines A and B, epirodin, epicocconone, and a variety of carotenoid pigments. [10] [11] Epicoccum nigrum has also been utilized in the biosynthetic manufacture of silver- and gold nanoparticles. [12] [13]
A highly robust and ubiquitous fungus, [14] E. nigrum has an almost global spread, occurring in the Americas, Asia, and Europe. [1] Spores of E. nigrum have been cultured from a variety of environments, predominantly soil (i.e. peat, forest floor, raw humus, compost, tundra, sewage) [1] and sand (e.g., dunes, saline sands). [1] [15] It is a saprophytic fungus, forming pustules (composed of sporodochia and conidia) on dead and dying plants. [4] This species is commonly found growing on cereals and seeds, as well as other crops including corn, beans, potatoes, peas and peaches. [1] [16] It has been found to grow colonies on leaves submersed in water as cold as 0 °C (32 °F), and is considered a facultative marine fungus. [17] It is capable of colonizing algae and marsh grasses. [17] In indoor environments, E. nigrum has been found on paintings and wallpaper, [18] cotton and textiles, [1] [4] in dust, [16] [18] and in air. [1] [16] [19] [20] It is tolerant of changes in water availability, and hyphal growth has been found to resume within an hour of exposure to water. [17]
Epicoccum nigrum has a wide array of medical, industrial, and agricultural applications. It produces a variety of pigmented and non-pigmented antifungal and antibacterial compounds. [11] [21] These antimicrobial compounds are effective against other fungi and bacteria present in soil. [11] Flavipin, and epirodins A and B are pigmented antifungal agents; [10] [11] non-pigmented compounds include epicorazines A and B. [11] Endophytic fungi such as E. nigrum are being explored as alternative sources of antibiotics to treat important resistant infections. [22] Polysaccharide antioxidants are also produced by E. nigrum. [23] Epicocconone is a fluorescent pigment unique to E. nigrum. [24] Epicocconone is valuable in terms of its ability to pigment cells orange, which then fluoresce red without impacting cell structure or function. [24]
Industrially, E. nigrum has a variety of broad applications. It has demonstrated a capacity to biosynthesize nanoparticles from silver and gold, which have applications in chemical, industrial, and medical processes. [12] [13] It has been applied as biological treatment for mechanical oily effluent, reducing the content of hydrogen peroxide, phenols, and chemical oxygen demand in the oily effluent. [25] Epicoccum nigrum pigments have been considered as natural replacements for artificial pigments currently used in food. [26] It produces a variety of pigments, ranging from darker oranges to yellows and greens. [26] These pigments were synthesized by nonpathogenic strains of E. nigrum. [26]
In Brazil, E. nigrum is used to support root growth and control sugarcane pathogens. [27] It is a biocontrol antifungal agent active against brown rot in stone fruit, caused the species Monilinia laxa and Monilinia fructigena. [28] In contrast to these uses for E. nigrum metabolites, there has been an investigation into methods of controlling E. nigrum fungal colonies that have contaminated historic and cultural artifacts. [29] The fungus was found to be quite sensitive to essential oils from plants such as lavender and rosemary. [29] This is important in terms of the preservation of artifacts in humid climates, where fungal growth is an important determinant in the deterioration of stone structures and wood frames. [29]
Epicoccum nigrum produces the glycoprotein allergen Epi p 1 which binds to IgE, sometimes cross-reacting with other fungal allergens. [16] Cross-reactivity was found to exist with Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Cladosporium herbarum, and Penicillium citrinum. [30] Epicoccum nigrum is associated with respiratory fungal allergies, including allergic asthma, rhinitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and allergic fungal sinusitis. [16] [31] Two pediatric cases of hypersensitivity pneumonitis caused by E. nigrum were reported in children living in a damp and mouldy home, with daily exposure to E. nigrum in the shower. [32] The fungus has been found on human skin and in spit samples. [1] It does not typically cause systemic infection, although one case has been reported in an immunocompromised patient. [33]
Epicoccum nigrum has been treated under a variety of names in the genus Epicoccum. It was first identified in 1815 by botanist Johaan Heinrich Friedrich Link. [34] Today, all previously identified species are considered to be different variants of the species E. nigrum. [4] These include: E. purpurascens, E. diversisporum, E. versicolor, E. vulgare, E. granulatum, E. menispermi, and E. neglectum. [4] [34] More recently, two distinct genotypes for E. nigrum have been identified with the combined use of DNA sequencing, morphology, physiology, and recombination factors. [35] This indicates the existence of cryptic species, and a subsequent call to re-classify E. nigrum into more than one species. [35]
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cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link)
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help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link)
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has generic name (
help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link)
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cite book}}
: |first1=
has generic name (
help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link)
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cite book}}
: |first1=
has generic name (
help)