Potato leafhopper | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Insecta |
Order: | Hemiptera |
Suborder: | Auchenorrhyncha |
Family: | Cicadellidae |
Genus: | Empoasca |
Species: | E. fabae
|
Binomial name | |
Empoasca fabae (
Harris, 1841)
|
Potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) belongs to family Cicadellidae and genus Empoasca within order Hemiptera. [1] In North America they are a serious agricultural pest. [2] Every year millions of dollars are lost from reduced crop yields and on pest management. [3] Crops that are impacted the most are potatoes, clover, beans, apples and alfalfa. [4]
Adults have pale to iridescent green bodies with 6 or 8 white spots on their pronotum. [4] They have a distinctive white H shape mark between their head and wing base. [5] Their bodies are approximately 3 mm long and have on their front wings near its tip a crossvein. [4] Adults and nymphs move by hopping among host plants. [5] However, only adults can fly. [6]
They are able to feed and reproduce on at least 200 different plant species across twenty-six families. [1] In total herb genera represent 64% of their hosts. [7] Adults prefer to feed on the leaves and stems, while the nymphs prefer the leaves. [7] Their specialized mouth parts are able to pierce into the plant tissue and remove its sap. [8] The ability to inhabit a wide range of hosts is due to the variation in their feeding behaviors. [9]
Empoasca fabae is a seasonal migration species. [10] If they are flying at night, it takes two or three days to reach their summer destinations. [11] Research suggests that they are using winds as a passive means to help migrate. [10] The direction of the winds influence their distribution within their summer range. [10] Typically, the winds blow in a north-northeast direction towards Northern and Midwest United States. [10] Factors such as warm temperatures and lack of precipitation increases their range. [11] Cold temperatures, major precipitation, and unsuitable environmental conditions are factors that will stop migration to continue more north. [11] In late summer, cold fronts start to appear sending cues for them to leave. [10] As they leave they get caught up in these fronts which carry them south to southwest to their overwintering range. [10]
Due to their inability to tolerate the cold winter temperatures they must migrate south. [10] Adults overwinter on hosts in the pine and mixed hardwood forests along the Gulf of Mexico and in the Southern United States. [12] Eastern Texas and Oklahoma, Virginia, Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi, have documented populations. [12] Before migrating back to their summer range they change their hosts to herbaceous legumes then to new spring foliage of deciduous trees. [12]
Their summer range extends across the Midwest and eastern parts of Canada and the United States. [13] In Canada, they are found only in the Great Lakes region. [10] They are able to inhabit a wide range of habitats. [9] Only about 32% of individuals actually occupy croplands. [9] The remaining individuals will reside in fields, woodlands, scrublands, waste places, and parks. [9] Precipitation will deposit individuals upon plant hosts where they will quickly re-establish themselves. [14]
Before migrating they mate and enter reproductive diapause. [12] Empoasca fabae begin to enter into reproductive dispause at the end of July. [15] The entire population remains in this state for its migration and overwintering period. [12] This diapause period ends from mid-January through February, and they begin to sexually mature. [12]
During the spring migration north, the majority of the individuals are females. [16] When they return if temperatures are above 10 °C they can start oviposition and populations grow and re-establish themselves. [17] Empoasca fabae arrives back to their summer ranges during April or early May depending on the location. [18]
During the summer months they can, on average, lay eggs over a span of 96 days. [19] Peak population densities occur during late May to late June. [8] Many overlapping generations appear. [8] After this their population densities begin to decline slowly. [18] Individuals have a tendency to aggregate as their populations increase. [18] At the end of the summer, individuals either die or migrate south. [20]
Eggs are laid on their hosts; they are transparent and small in size. [5] Females will lay 2 or 3 eggs a day on the plant's stem and leaf veins. [21] The egg's incubation period ranges from 4 through 23 days, the hatchings are called nymphs. [19] New hatchlings are white in colour and develop their green colouring as they age. [19] The nymphs undergo five instars before becoming adults. [16] As they develop, they lose their skin and develop their wings. [5] Empoasca fabae develops into adults in 8 through 37 days. [19] Their entire lifecycle is one month long. [21]
The visually descriptive term hopperburn is used for a distinct type of damage on plants by E. fabae's feeding on its hosts. [16] As they feed their saliva mechanically injures the phloem and parenchyma cells. [2] The plant also suffers damage to its vascular cambium, and to its vascular bundles. [16] Within 24 hours of being infested, rates of photosynthesis, and transpiration are reduced, leaves accumulate starch, and transport of photoassimilates are reduced. [7]
The first symptoms of hopperburn is that a leaflet's margins start to curl up. [7] As a plant's infestation increases, its leaves cup downward, and they start to turn from green to yellow. [22] In severe infestations this leads to leaf necrosis in which the leaf margins and intervein areas turn brown. [22] Older plants completely lose their leaves. [3] Young plants display tip-wilting and will be stunted in height. [3] Plants that were damaged by stem feeding suffered more damage to their physiologies than those which were damaged by leaf eating. [7]
Research has shown that water-stressed plants increase nymph's development time. [6] This causes severe hopperburn due to the increase plant stress response. [21]
Hopperburn leads to reduced plant growth and reproduction. [3] In some heavily infested fields up to 75% of the yield is lost, it depends on what stage of development the plants are in. [13] Obviously, this leads to reductions in crop yields and large economic losses. [3] For example, in 1988 the losses of alfalfa crops in Northeast United States ranged from $32-$66 per hectare. [23] The amount of crop damage is directly proportional to the population density. [13] Most crop damage comes from the future generations of the initial arrivals back to the summer range. [11]
Research has indicated that over the last 62 years that they have been arriving back to their summer range earlier by ten days. [24] Warmer temperatures increases the time and speed of egg hatching and nymph development. [17] There is increasing concern that climate change will shift the overwintering and summer ranges more northward. [24] This will exacerbate the problem of pest management and increase economic losses. . [24]
Usually, crop detection of E. fabae is too late as hopperburn is the first visual symptom of a major infestation. [21] Regular crop inspections with a sweep net are essential to help reduce massive economic losses. [21] Another visual cue is the death of leaves with small pits holes throughout them resulting from their eggs. [5] Host expansion is likely caused from the loss of natural resistance through extensive plant breeding. [1]
Currently, the only effective method that exists for controlling E. fabae's infestations is the heavy application of insecticides. [13] Short-lived insecticides such as carbaryl are commonly used; however they require costly reapplications. [14]
Research is indicating the possibility of being able to control populations by increasing E. fabae's natural enemies as part of pest management plan. [25] Percent mortality has been shown to be highest in individuals in younger instars. [15] Research has shown that natural resistance and pesticide use are just as effective, but neither is capable to fully contain populations. [26] To create more effective management programs and reduce pesticide use it is essential to understand their dispersion, temporal and spatial patterns. [18]
Potato leafhopper | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Insecta |
Order: | Hemiptera |
Suborder: | Auchenorrhyncha |
Family: | Cicadellidae |
Genus: | Empoasca |
Species: | E. fabae
|
Binomial name | |
Empoasca fabae (
Harris, 1841)
|
Potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) belongs to family Cicadellidae and genus Empoasca within order Hemiptera. [1] In North America they are a serious agricultural pest. [2] Every year millions of dollars are lost from reduced crop yields and on pest management. [3] Crops that are impacted the most are potatoes, clover, beans, apples and alfalfa. [4]
Adults have pale to iridescent green bodies with 6 or 8 white spots on their pronotum. [4] They have a distinctive white H shape mark between their head and wing base. [5] Their bodies are approximately 3 mm long and have on their front wings near its tip a crossvein. [4] Adults and nymphs move by hopping among host plants. [5] However, only adults can fly. [6]
They are able to feed and reproduce on at least 200 different plant species across twenty-six families. [1] In total herb genera represent 64% of their hosts. [7] Adults prefer to feed on the leaves and stems, while the nymphs prefer the leaves. [7] Their specialized mouth parts are able to pierce into the plant tissue and remove its sap. [8] The ability to inhabit a wide range of hosts is due to the variation in their feeding behaviors. [9]
Empoasca fabae is a seasonal migration species. [10] If they are flying at night, it takes two or three days to reach their summer destinations. [11] Research suggests that they are using winds as a passive means to help migrate. [10] The direction of the winds influence their distribution within their summer range. [10] Typically, the winds blow in a north-northeast direction towards Northern and Midwest United States. [10] Factors such as warm temperatures and lack of precipitation increases their range. [11] Cold temperatures, major precipitation, and unsuitable environmental conditions are factors that will stop migration to continue more north. [11] In late summer, cold fronts start to appear sending cues for them to leave. [10] As they leave they get caught up in these fronts which carry them south to southwest to their overwintering range. [10]
Due to their inability to tolerate the cold winter temperatures they must migrate south. [10] Adults overwinter on hosts in the pine and mixed hardwood forests along the Gulf of Mexico and in the Southern United States. [12] Eastern Texas and Oklahoma, Virginia, Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi, have documented populations. [12] Before migrating back to their summer range they change their hosts to herbaceous legumes then to new spring foliage of deciduous trees. [12]
Their summer range extends across the Midwest and eastern parts of Canada and the United States. [13] In Canada, they are found only in the Great Lakes region. [10] They are able to inhabit a wide range of habitats. [9] Only about 32% of individuals actually occupy croplands. [9] The remaining individuals will reside in fields, woodlands, scrublands, waste places, and parks. [9] Precipitation will deposit individuals upon plant hosts where they will quickly re-establish themselves. [14]
Before migrating they mate and enter reproductive diapause. [12] Empoasca fabae begin to enter into reproductive dispause at the end of July. [15] The entire population remains in this state for its migration and overwintering period. [12] This diapause period ends from mid-January through February, and they begin to sexually mature. [12]
During the spring migration north, the majority of the individuals are females. [16] When they return if temperatures are above 10 °C they can start oviposition and populations grow and re-establish themselves. [17] Empoasca fabae arrives back to their summer ranges during April or early May depending on the location. [18]
During the summer months they can, on average, lay eggs over a span of 96 days. [19] Peak population densities occur during late May to late June. [8] Many overlapping generations appear. [8] After this their population densities begin to decline slowly. [18] Individuals have a tendency to aggregate as their populations increase. [18] At the end of the summer, individuals either die or migrate south. [20]
Eggs are laid on their hosts; they are transparent and small in size. [5] Females will lay 2 or 3 eggs a day on the plant's stem and leaf veins. [21] The egg's incubation period ranges from 4 through 23 days, the hatchings are called nymphs. [19] New hatchlings are white in colour and develop their green colouring as they age. [19] The nymphs undergo five instars before becoming adults. [16] As they develop, they lose their skin and develop their wings. [5] Empoasca fabae develops into adults in 8 through 37 days. [19] Their entire lifecycle is one month long. [21]
The visually descriptive term hopperburn is used for a distinct type of damage on plants by E. fabae's feeding on its hosts. [16] As they feed their saliva mechanically injures the phloem and parenchyma cells. [2] The plant also suffers damage to its vascular cambium, and to its vascular bundles. [16] Within 24 hours of being infested, rates of photosynthesis, and transpiration are reduced, leaves accumulate starch, and transport of photoassimilates are reduced. [7]
The first symptoms of hopperburn is that a leaflet's margins start to curl up. [7] As a plant's infestation increases, its leaves cup downward, and they start to turn from green to yellow. [22] In severe infestations this leads to leaf necrosis in which the leaf margins and intervein areas turn brown. [22] Older plants completely lose their leaves. [3] Young plants display tip-wilting and will be stunted in height. [3] Plants that were damaged by stem feeding suffered more damage to their physiologies than those which were damaged by leaf eating. [7]
Research has shown that water-stressed plants increase nymph's development time. [6] This causes severe hopperburn due to the increase plant stress response. [21]
Hopperburn leads to reduced plant growth and reproduction. [3] In some heavily infested fields up to 75% of the yield is lost, it depends on what stage of development the plants are in. [13] Obviously, this leads to reductions in crop yields and large economic losses. [3] For example, in 1988 the losses of alfalfa crops in Northeast United States ranged from $32-$66 per hectare. [23] The amount of crop damage is directly proportional to the population density. [13] Most crop damage comes from the future generations of the initial arrivals back to the summer range. [11]
Research has indicated that over the last 62 years that they have been arriving back to their summer range earlier by ten days. [24] Warmer temperatures increases the time and speed of egg hatching and nymph development. [17] There is increasing concern that climate change will shift the overwintering and summer ranges more northward. [24] This will exacerbate the problem of pest management and increase economic losses. . [24]
Usually, crop detection of E. fabae is too late as hopperburn is the first visual symptom of a major infestation. [21] Regular crop inspections with a sweep net are essential to help reduce massive economic losses. [21] Another visual cue is the death of leaves with small pits holes throughout them resulting from their eggs. [5] Host expansion is likely caused from the loss of natural resistance through extensive plant breeding. [1]
Currently, the only effective method that exists for controlling E. fabae's infestations is the heavy application of insecticides. [13] Short-lived insecticides such as carbaryl are commonly used; however they require costly reapplications. [14]
Research is indicating the possibility of being able to control populations by increasing E. fabae's natural enemies as part of pest management plan. [25] Percent mortality has been shown to be highest in individuals in younger instars. [15] Research has shown that natural resistance and pesticide use are just as effective, but neither is capable to fully contain populations. [26] To create more effective management programs and reduce pesticide use it is essential to understand their dispersion, temporal and spatial patterns. [18]