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Edward Seymour Forman
Forman in 1932
Born(1912-12-03)December 3, 1912
Gillespie, Illinois
DiedFebruary 12, 1973(1973-02-12) (aged 60)
OccupationRocket engineer
Organizations
  • Jet Propulsion Laboratory
  • California Institute of Technology
  • Aerojet Engineering Corporation
  • Hughes Aircraft Company
  • Lockheed Martin Corp

Edward Seymour Forman (December 3, 1912 – February 12, 1973) was an American engineer and inventor known for his pioneering work in early rocketry in the United States. Forman, along with his collaborators in Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology (GALCIT), demonstrated the first practical jet-assisted take-off (JATO) of an aircraft in the United States. [1] Forman was among the GALCIT innovators that went on to found Aerojet General Corporation, the largest rocket technology manufacturer in the 1940s, [2] [3] : 258  and the GALCIT Rocket Research Group itself became the precursor of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. [4]

Early life and education

Forman was born in Gillespie, Illinois, [5] the youngest of four brothers. The family moved to Pasadena, California and Forman attended Washington Junior High School, where he met Jack Parsons, who would become his lifelong collaborator and friend. Forman found Parsons, who was two years younger than he, being bullied at school and rescued him. Soon after that, the two boys grew a strong bond over their common interest in science fiction. [6]: 44–46  Forman was an avid reader of the Barsoom series by Edgar Rice Burroughs, [6]: 46  which is quoted as having influenced a generation of scientists and thinkers, including Carl Sagan. [7] Inspired by science fiction, Forman and Parsons started building model rockets in their backyards and adopted the Latin phrase Ad Astra per Aspera (through rough ways to the stars) [5] [6]: 47 as their motto. "It was our desire and intent to develop the ability to rocket to the moon", Forman later said about their high ambition as teenagers. [8]

During high school at John Muir High in Pasadena, Forman and Parsons continued with their experiments in their backyards and out in the deserts. Forman left high school before getting a degree and enrolled in Pasadena Junior College. With his overriding interest in rocketry, Forman took on an array of odd jobs to make ends meet. He worked as carpenter, chauffeur and postal worker as well as airplane mechanic, sheet metal worker and apprentice machinist in aircraft and ammunition factories. [9] Meanwhile Parsons found part-time work in Hercules Powder Company, an explosive manufacturer, where he taught himself to be a chemist. The pair used their newfound skills to improve the design of their rockets and, as the tests grew more complex and explosive, moved their testing site into the nearby Arroyo Seco, a dry canyon wash at the foot of the San Gabriel Mountains. [6]: 59–61 

Research

GALCIT members in the Arroyo Seco, November 1936. Left foreground to right: Rudolph Schott, Amo Smith, Frank Malina, Ed Forman, and Jack Parsons. This photo is known in the JPL community as the Nativity Scene. [10]

GALCIT Rocket Research Group

In the early 1930s, Forman and Parsons began to realize that the rocket technology was a more complex subject than they had first assumed. [6]: 64–66  They corresponded with rocketry experts on both sides of the Atlantic, but Forman later reminisced that they learned very little beyond the fact that nobody else had yet achieved much. [11]: 6–7 In 1935, a Los Angeles Times article titled “Rocket Plane Visualized Flying 1200 Miles Hour” caught the pair's eyes. The article covered a paper by William Bollay, an aeronautics graduate student at Caltech, on the works of Austrian engineer Eugen Sänger. When they approached Bollay, he directed them to Frank Malina, another graduate student, who was pursuing studies in rocket propulsion. [12] [6]: 74–75  Malina shared their enthusiasm about rocketry and agreed to join their efforts.

The trio put together a research proposal to request funding from Caltech. Initially, Foreman and Parsons wanted to propose the development of a sounding rocket, but Malina argued in favor of a more fundamental project aimed at understanding the thermodynamics in a rocket engine through static tests. [6]: 78  Malina later recounted that "Parsons and Forman were not too pleased with an austere program that did not include at least the launching of model rockets", but the group reached a consensus to propose a static-fire-test of an alcohol-based rocket motor before building a launchable prototype. [13] Nevertheless, when the proposal was submitted to Caltech, it was turned down and derided as impractical.. [6]: 80–81 

The group then approached Theodore von Kármán, Caltech Professor of Aeronautics and the director of Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory (GALCIT), who was known for his unorthodox teaching and research methods. [6]: 81–83  They were able to convince von Kármán to let them use the resources of GALCIT after hours for their work. Von Kármán later wrote, “I was immediately captivated by the earnestness and the enthusiasm of these young men. Most young people are quite serious about their dreams, so this in itself was not what interested me; it was the unusually strong background of these young rocketeers….” He saw Malina as an outstanding student of aeronautics, Parsons as a self-taught yet capable chemist and Forman as an ardent rocketeer to whom rocket engines were as familiar as car engines are to an automobile tinkerer. [3]: 235 

The group took the name "GALCIT Rocket Research Group" although it was not funded by or officially affiliated with GALCIT or Caltech. The group also attracted a new member, Apollo A.M.O. Smith, another Caltech graduate student. To build the motor and testing rig, the group had to scrounge parts from junkyards and use the earnings from their day jobs, [11]: 10  which Forman later described as a "hand-to-mouth operation". [9] The group's first liquid-fuel motor test took place near the Devil's Gate Dam in the Arroyo Seco on Halloween 1936. The rocket failed to achieve ignition in the first three attempts, and the fourth attempt accidentally ignited the oxygen line and dismantled the whole setup. It was found that the powder fuse was the source of the problem, so Forman modified the motor to accommodate a spark plug fuse and replaced the rubber hose in the oxygen line with copper tubes. The second test on November 15 achieved successful ignition and Malina was able to collect the thrust data. Two more tests followed on November 28, 1936 and January 26, 1937, which generated more data for Malina. [12] [14] [15]

The test results impressed von Kármán who allocated laboratory space on the third floor of Guggenheim for farther experiments. He hired Forman and Parsons as part-time employees and added Qian Xuesen, a mathematician working on his Ph.D. at Caltech, to the group. But soon after, a rocket fuel leak caused extensive damage to the building which happened to house the largest wind tunnel in the world at the time. The incidence got the group evicted from the laboratory space. A few months later, a thrust balance they had installed on Guggenheim’s outside wall exploded and propelled a piece of a gauge into the building. These accidents earned the group the moniker "suicide squad". [12] [15] The notoriety of the group spread off-campus as newspapers carried articles about them and Popular Mechanics ran a photo of their experiments. However, the subsequent news coverage, focused on the Caltech graduate students-- Smith, Malina and Xuesen, and Forman and Parsons were excluded. [6]: 110–112 

By early 1938, the group had improved the operating time of their static rocket motor from three seconds to over a minute before the parts got overheated. [16]

JATO: development and test flight

Take-off on August 12, 1941, of America's first "rocket-assisted" fixed-wing aircraft, an ERCO Ercoupe fitted with a GALCIT developed solid propellant JATO booster

In May 1938, Chief of the Army Air Corps General Henry A. "Hap" Arnold visited the laboratory to investigate the possible use of rocketry for the Army, in particular the possibility for a solution for the problem of heavily loaded military planes having to take off on shorter runways. This later turned into a $10,000 contract to develop Jet-Assisted-Take-Off units for the Air Corps. [2]

In early 1939, the National Academy of Sciences provided $1,000 to von Kármán and the Rocket Research Group to research rocket-assisted take-off of aircraft. This JATO research was the first rocket research to receive financial support from the U.S. government. [1] [17]

In the summer of 1941, GALCIT research led to a successful flight test, when Army test pilot Captain Homer Boushey flew a light Ercoupe monoplane with two 50-pound JATO units attached, and made several flights. For the last attempt, they removed the propeller, and on 23 August 1941, Boushey made the first unassisted rocket propelled flight with six JATOs under the wings. [2]

Career

{{{annotations}}}

Solid-fuel JATO unit manufactured by Aerojet at the National Air and Space Museum

Under contract with the armed forces, these early rockets, called JATOs (Jet-Assisted Take Off), were fastened under the wings of airplanes to accelerate takeoff. [6]: 194  In 1942, Kármán, Malina, Parsons, Forman and another graduate student Martin Summerfield invested $250 each of their own money to found Aerojet General Corporation for the purpose of manufacturing the JATOs. [6]: 194  Forman was one of six founding members along with Parsons, Malina, Kármán, and two others, of Aerojet Engineering Corporation, which was incorporated in March 1942. [18]

In 1943, the Army Air Forces asked GALCIT to study the possible use of rockets to propel long-range missiles. The response sent in reply, dated 20 November 1943, was the first document to use the Jet Propulsion Laboratory name, [19] even though as far as Caltech was concerned, the JPL did not yet formally exist. [20] According to Malina, the work of the JPL was considered to include the rocketry research carried out by the GALCIT Rocket Research Group from 1936 on. [21]

Aerojet's first two contracts were from the U.S. Navy; the Bureau of Aeronautics requested a solid-fuel JATO and Wilbur Wright Field requested a liquid-fuel unit. The Air Corps had requested two thousand JATOs from Aerojet by late 1943, committing $256,000 toward Parsons' solid-fuel type. Despite this drastically increased demand, the company continued to operate informally and remained intertwined with the GALCIT project. Caltech astronomer Fritz Zwicky was brought in as head of the company's research department. [11]: 73–76  [6]: 191–192, 223–226 

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Malina, Frank J. (1967). "Memoir on the GALCIT Rocket Research Project". l'Observatoire Leonardo pour les Arts et les Techno-Sciences. Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. Retrieved 2007-04-10.
  2. ^ a b c Winter, Frank H. (16 March 2017). "How the 'Suicide Squad' Turned Into One of the World's First Rocket Companies". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. ISSN  0037-7333.
  3. ^ a b Theodore von Kármán with Lee Edson (1967) The Wind and Beyond, Little, Brown and Company
  4. ^ Zibit, Benjamin Seth (1999). The Guggenheim Aeronautics Laboratory at Caltech and the creation of the modern rocket motor (1936–1946): How the dynamics of rocket theory became reality (Thesis). Bibcode: 1999PhDT........48Z. Archived from the original on 2017-07-10. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
  5. ^ a b "Guide to the Edward S. Forman papers". oac.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Pendle, George (2005). Strange Angel: The Otherworldly Life of Rocket Scientist John Whiteside Parsons. Harcourt, Inc. ISBN  0-15-100997-X.
  7. ^ Sagan, Carl (1978-05-28). "Growing up with Science Fiction". The New York Times. p. SM7. ISSN  0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
  8. ^ Landis, Geoffrey (July 2005). "The Three Rocketeers". American Scientist. 93 (4). Sigma Xi. doi: 10.1511/2005.54.0 (inactive 31 January 2024). Retrieved 21 July 2023.{{ cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 ( link)
  9. ^ a b Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (November 8, 1968). "JPL Plaque Honors LMSC Man". Lockheed MSC Star. JPL History Collection, 3-212. 13 (48). OCLC  733104803.
  10. ^ "JPL 101" (PDF). jpl.nasa.gov. Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 24, 2017. Retrieved January 18, 2015.
  11. ^ a b c Carter, John (2004). Sex and Rockets: The Occult World of Jack Parsons (new ed.). Port Townsend, Washington: Feral House. ISBN  978-0-922915-97-2.
  12. ^ a b c Conway, Erik M. (2007). "From Rockets to Spacecraft: Making JPL a Place for Planetary Science" (PDF). calteches.library.caltech.edu. California Institute of Technology. Retrieved March 22, 2014.
  13. ^ Malina, Frank J. (November 1968). "The Rocket Pioneers" (PDF). calteches.library.caltech.edu. California Institute of Technology. pp. 8–13.
  14. ^ "The Spark of a New Era". jpl.nasa.gov. NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory. October 25, 2006. Archived from the original on June 24, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2014.
  15. ^ a b "JPL 101" (PDF). jpl.nasa.gov. Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 24, 2017. Retrieved January 18, 2015.
  16. ^ Westwick, Peter J (2007). Into the Black: JPL and the American Space Program, 1976–2004. New haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN  978-0-300-13458-2.
  17. ^ "Orders of Magnitude - A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915-1990, Ch. 2". NASA. 1989.
  18. ^ Doyle, Stephen E.; Ciancone, Michael (21 October 2019). "Aerojet Engineering Corporation: Stimulation and Creation, 1935-1942". NASA STI Program. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  19. ^ Burrows, William E. (1999). This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. Modern Library. p. 111. ISBN  0-375-75485-7.
  20. ^ Bluth, John. "Von Karman, Malina laid the groundwork for the future JPL". JPL.
  21. ^ Malina, F. J. (1969). Hall, R. Cargill (ed.). The U.S. Army Air Corps Jet Propulsion Research Project, GALCIT Project No. 1, 1939–1946: A Memoir. Essays on the History of rocketry and astronautics: proceedings of the third through the sixth Symposia of the International Academy of Astronautics. NASA conference publication, 2014. Vol. 2 Part III The Development of Liquid- and Solid-propellant Rockets, 1880–1945. Washington, D.C.: NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office (published September 1977). p. 153. OCLC  5354560. CP 2014.

Further reading

Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Edward_Forman&oldid=1202606655"
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Edward S. Forman)
Edward Seymour Forman
Forman in 1932
Born(1912-12-03)December 3, 1912
Gillespie, Illinois
DiedFebruary 12, 1973(1973-02-12) (aged 60)
OccupationRocket engineer
Organizations
  • Jet Propulsion Laboratory
  • California Institute of Technology
  • Aerojet Engineering Corporation
  • Hughes Aircraft Company
  • Lockheed Martin Corp

Edward Seymour Forman (December 3, 1912 – February 12, 1973) was an American engineer and inventor known for his pioneering work in early rocketry in the United States. Forman, along with his collaborators in Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology (GALCIT), demonstrated the first practical jet-assisted take-off (JATO) of an aircraft in the United States. [1] Forman was among the GALCIT innovators that went on to found Aerojet General Corporation, the largest rocket technology manufacturer in the 1940s, [2] [3] : 258  and the GALCIT Rocket Research Group itself became the precursor of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. [4]

Early life and education

Forman was born in Gillespie, Illinois, [5] the youngest of four brothers. The family moved to Pasadena, California and Forman attended Washington Junior High School, where he met Jack Parsons, who would become his lifelong collaborator and friend. Forman found Parsons, who was two years younger than he, being bullied at school and rescued him. Soon after that, the two boys grew a strong bond over their common interest in science fiction. [6]: 44–46  Forman was an avid reader of the Barsoom series by Edgar Rice Burroughs, [6]: 46  which is quoted as having influenced a generation of scientists and thinkers, including Carl Sagan. [7] Inspired by science fiction, Forman and Parsons started building model rockets in their backyards and adopted the Latin phrase Ad Astra per Aspera (through rough ways to the stars) [5] [6]: 47 as their motto. "It was our desire and intent to develop the ability to rocket to the moon", Forman later said about their high ambition as teenagers. [8]

During high school at John Muir High in Pasadena, Forman and Parsons continued with their experiments in their backyards and out in the deserts. Forman left high school before getting a degree and enrolled in Pasadena Junior College. With his overriding interest in rocketry, Forman took on an array of odd jobs to make ends meet. He worked as carpenter, chauffeur and postal worker as well as airplane mechanic, sheet metal worker and apprentice machinist in aircraft and ammunition factories. [9] Meanwhile Parsons found part-time work in Hercules Powder Company, an explosive manufacturer, where he taught himself to be a chemist. The pair used their newfound skills to improve the design of their rockets and, as the tests grew more complex and explosive, moved their testing site into the nearby Arroyo Seco, a dry canyon wash at the foot of the San Gabriel Mountains. [6]: 59–61 

Research

GALCIT members in the Arroyo Seco, November 1936. Left foreground to right: Rudolph Schott, Amo Smith, Frank Malina, Ed Forman, and Jack Parsons. This photo is known in the JPL community as the Nativity Scene. [10]

GALCIT Rocket Research Group

In the early 1930s, Forman and Parsons began to realize that the rocket technology was a more complex subject than they had first assumed. [6]: 64–66  They corresponded with rocketry experts on both sides of the Atlantic, but Forman later reminisced that they learned very little beyond the fact that nobody else had yet achieved much. [11]: 6–7 In 1935, a Los Angeles Times article titled “Rocket Plane Visualized Flying 1200 Miles Hour” caught the pair's eyes. The article covered a paper by William Bollay, an aeronautics graduate student at Caltech, on the works of Austrian engineer Eugen Sänger. When they approached Bollay, he directed them to Frank Malina, another graduate student, who was pursuing studies in rocket propulsion. [12] [6]: 74–75  Malina shared their enthusiasm about rocketry and agreed to join their efforts.

The trio put together a research proposal to request funding from Caltech. Initially, Foreman and Parsons wanted to propose the development of a sounding rocket, but Malina argued in favor of a more fundamental project aimed at understanding the thermodynamics in a rocket engine through static tests. [6]: 78  Malina later recounted that "Parsons and Forman were not too pleased with an austere program that did not include at least the launching of model rockets", but the group reached a consensus to propose a static-fire-test of an alcohol-based rocket motor before building a launchable prototype. [13] Nevertheless, when the proposal was submitted to Caltech, it was turned down and derided as impractical.. [6]: 80–81 

The group then approached Theodore von Kármán, Caltech Professor of Aeronautics and the director of Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory (GALCIT), who was known for his unorthodox teaching and research methods. [6]: 81–83  They were able to convince von Kármán to let them use the resources of GALCIT after hours for their work. Von Kármán later wrote, “I was immediately captivated by the earnestness and the enthusiasm of these young men. Most young people are quite serious about their dreams, so this in itself was not what interested me; it was the unusually strong background of these young rocketeers….” He saw Malina as an outstanding student of aeronautics, Parsons as a self-taught yet capable chemist and Forman as an ardent rocketeer to whom rocket engines were as familiar as car engines are to an automobile tinkerer. [3]: 235 

The group took the name "GALCIT Rocket Research Group" although it was not funded by or officially affiliated with GALCIT or Caltech. The group also attracted a new member, Apollo A.M.O. Smith, another Caltech graduate student. To build the motor and testing rig, the group had to scrounge parts from junkyards and use the earnings from their day jobs, [11]: 10  which Forman later described as a "hand-to-mouth operation". [9] The group's first liquid-fuel motor test took place near the Devil's Gate Dam in the Arroyo Seco on Halloween 1936. The rocket failed to achieve ignition in the first three attempts, and the fourth attempt accidentally ignited the oxygen line and dismantled the whole setup. It was found that the powder fuse was the source of the problem, so Forman modified the motor to accommodate a spark plug fuse and replaced the rubber hose in the oxygen line with copper tubes. The second test on November 15 achieved successful ignition and Malina was able to collect the thrust data. Two more tests followed on November 28, 1936 and January 26, 1937, which generated more data for Malina. [12] [14] [15]

The test results impressed von Kármán who allocated laboratory space on the third floor of Guggenheim for farther experiments. He hired Forman and Parsons as part-time employees and added Qian Xuesen, a mathematician working on his Ph.D. at Caltech, to the group. But soon after, a rocket fuel leak caused extensive damage to the building which happened to house the largest wind tunnel in the world at the time. The incidence got the group evicted from the laboratory space. A few months later, a thrust balance they had installed on Guggenheim’s outside wall exploded and propelled a piece of a gauge into the building. These accidents earned the group the moniker "suicide squad". [12] [15] The notoriety of the group spread off-campus as newspapers carried articles about them and Popular Mechanics ran a photo of their experiments. However, the subsequent news coverage, focused on the Caltech graduate students-- Smith, Malina and Xuesen, and Forman and Parsons were excluded. [6]: 110–112 

By early 1938, the group had improved the operating time of their static rocket motor from three seconds to over a minute before the parts got overheated. [16]

JATO: development and test flight

Take-off on August 12, 1941, of America's first "rocket-assisted" fixed-wing aircraft, an ERCO Ercoupe fitted with a GALCIT developed solid propellant JATO booster

In May 1938, Chief of the Army Air Corps General Henry A. "Hap" Arnold visited the laboratory to investigate the possible use of rocketry for the Army, in particular the possibility for a solution for the problem of heavily loaded military planes having to take off on shorter runways. This later turned into a $10,000 contract to develop Jet-Assisted-Take-Off units for the Air Corps. [2]

In early 1939, the National Academy of Sciences provided $1,000 to von Kármán and the Rocket Research Group to research rocket-assisted take-off of aircraft. This JATO research was the first rocket research to receive financial support from the U.S. government. [1] [17]

In the summer of 1941, GALCIT research led to a successful flight test, when Army test pilot Captain Homer Boushey flew a light Ercoupe monoplane with two 50-pound JATO units attached, and made several flights. For the last attempt, they removed the propeller, and on 23 August 1941, Boushey made the first unassisted rocket propelled flight with six JATOs under the wings. [2]

Career

{{{annotations}}}

Solid-fuel JATO unit manufactured by Aerojet at the National Air and Space Museum

Under contract with the armed forces, these early rockets, called JATOs (Jet-Assisted Take Off), were fastened under the wings of airplanes to accelerate takeoff. [6]: 194  In 1942, Kármán, Malina, Parsons, Forman and another graduate student Martin Summerfield invested $250 each of their own money to found Aerojet General Corporation for the purpose of manufacturing the JATOs. [6]: 194  Forman was one of six founding members along with Parsons, Malina, Kármán, and two others, of Aerojet Engineering Corporation, which was incorporated in March 1942. [18]

In 1943, the Army Air Forces asked GALCIT to study the possible use of rockets to propel long-range missiles. The response sent in reply, dated 20 November 1943, was the first document to use the Jet Propulsion Laboratory name, [19] even though as far as Caltech was concerned, the JPL did not yet formally exist. [20] According to Malina, the work of the JPL was considered to include the rocketry research carried out by the GALCIT Rocket Research Group from 1936 on. [21]

Aerojet's first two contracts were from the U.S. Navy; the Bureau of Aeronautics requested a solid-fuel JATO and Wilbur Wright Field requested a liquid-fuel unit. The Air Corps had requested two thousand JATOs from Aerojet by late 1943, committing $256,000 toward Parsons' solid-fuel type. Despite this drastically increased demand, the company continued to operate informally and remained intertwined with the GALCIT project. Caltech astronomer Fritz Zwicky was brought in as head of the company's research department. [11]: 73–76  [6]: 191–192, 223–226 

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Malina, Frank J. (1967). "Memoir on the GALCIT Rocket Research Project". l'Observatoire Leonardo pour les Arts et les Techno-Sciences. Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. Retrieved 2007-04-10.
  2. ^ a b c Winter, Frank H. (16 March 2017). "How the 'Suicide Squad' Turned Into One of the World's First Rocket Companies". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. ISSN  0037-7333.
  3. ^ a b Theodore von Kármán with Lee Edson (1967) The Wind and Beyond, Little, Brown and Company
  4. ^ Zibit, Benjamin Seth (1999). The Guggenheim Aeronautics Laboratory at Caltech and the creation of the modern rocket motor (1936–1946): How the dynamics of rocket theory became reality (Thesis). Bibcode: 1999PhDT........48Z. Archived from the original on 2017-07-10. Retrieved 2021-02-19.
  5. ^ a b "Guide to the Edward S. Forman papers". oac.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Pendle, George (2005). Strange Angel: The Otherworldly Life of Rocket Scientist John Whiteside Parsons. Harcourt, Inc. ISBN  0-15-100997-X.
  7. ^ Sagan, Carl (1978-05-28). "Growing up with Science Fiction". The New York Times. p. SM7. ISSN  0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
  8. ^ Landis, Geoffrey (July 2005). "The Three Rocketeers". American Scientist. 93 (4). Sigma Xi. doi: 10.1511/2005.54.0 (inactive 31 January 2024). Retrieved 21 July 2023.{{ cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 ( link)
  9. ^ a b Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (November 8, 1968). "JPL Plaque Honors LMSC Man". Lockheed MSC Star. JPL History Collection, 3-212. 13 (48). OCLC  733104803.
  10. ^ "JPL 101" (PDF). jpl.nasa.gov. Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 24, 2017. Retrieved January 18, 2015.
  11. ^ a b c Carter, John (2004). Sex and Rockets: The Occult World of Jack Parsons (new ed.). Port Townsend, Washington: Feral House. ISBN  978-0-922915-97-2.
  12. ^ a b c Conway, Erik M. (2007). "From Rockets to Spacecraft: Making JPL a Place for Planetary Science" (PDF). calteches.library.caltech.edu. California Institute of Technology. Retrieved March 22, 2014.
  13. ^ Malina, Frank J. (November 1968). "The Rocket Pioneers" (PDF). calteches.library.caltech.edu. California Institute of Technology. pp. 8–13.
  14. ^ "The Spark of a New Era". jpl.nasa.gov. NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory. October 25, 2006. Archived from the original on June 24, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2014.
  15. ^ a b "JPL 101" (PDF). jpl.nasa.gov. Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 24, 2017. Retrieved January 18, 2015.
  16. ^ Westwick, Peter J (2007). Into the Black: JPL and the American Space Program, 1976–2004. New haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN  978-0-300-13458-2.
  17. ^ "Orders of Magnitude - A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915-1990, Ch. 2". NASA. 1989.
  18. ^ Doyle, Stephen E.; Ciancone, Michael (21 October 2019). "Aerojet Engineering Corporation: Stimulation and Creation, 1935-1942". NASA STI Program. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  19. ^ Burrows, William E. (1999). This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. Modern Library. p. 111. ISBN  0-375-75485-7.
  20. ^ Bluth, John. "Von Karman, Malina laid the groundwork for the future JPL". JPL.
  21. ^ Malina, F. J. (1969). Hall, R. Cargill (ed.). The U.S. Army Air Corps Jet Propulsion Research Project, GALCIT Project No. 1, 1939–1946: A Memoir. Essays on the History of rocketry and astronautics: proceedings of the third through the sixth Symposia of the International Academy of Astronautics. NASA conference publication, 2014. Vol. 2 Part III The Development of Liquid- and Solid-propellant Rockets, 1880–1945. Washington, D.C.: NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office (published September 1977). p. 153. OCLC  5354560. CP 2014.

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