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Tony K. Stewart
Born
Millersburg, Kentucky
TitleGertrude Conaway Vanderbilt Chair in Humanities, Emeritus; Professor of Religious Studies, Emeritus
Academic background
EducationPh.D.
Alma materThe University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1985)

The University of Chicago (A.M., 1981)

Western Kentucky University (B.A., 1976)
Doctoral advisorEdward C. Dimock, Jr.
Academic work
DisciplineReligious Studies, Bengali Studies
InstitutionsVanderbilt University

Tony K. Stewart is a specialist in the literatures and religions of the Bengali-speaking world, with a focus on the ways early modern narratives shape Bengali culture. [1]

Currently, Stewart is Gertrude Conaway Vanderbilt Chair in Humanities, Emeritus, and Professor of Religious Studies, Emeritus, Vanderbilt University, where he served as chair of Religious Studies (2011-2020), before retiring from teaching in 2021. [2] [3] [4]

Life & Education

Born in rural Kentucky in 1954, Stewart grew up in the village of Millersburg and the town of Paris. [5] He graduated from Bourbon County High School in 1972.

Initially entering university to study accounting, Stewart shifted to take a B.A. degree (1976) in Religious Studies (Asian emphasis) and German Language and Literature at Western Kentucky University. He earned his A.M. (1981) and Ph.D. (1985) in the Department of South Asian Languages and Civilizations at The University of Chicago. Stewart matriculated at Chicago in 1976 to study under the direction of Edward C. Dimock, Jr., the effective founder of Bengal studies in the United States. The combined focus on language training and cultural studies offered by The University of Chicago in the 1970s led Stewart to develop a deep commitment to literary translation as a natural companion to historical hermeneutics of texts and traditions, a commitment that has marked his career. [2]

Languages

Bangla/Bengali, Dobhashi/Musalmani Bangla, Brajabuli, Sanskrit, French, and German.

Scholarship & Intellectual Influences

Stewart's research program can be broken into two closely inter-related trajectories: traditional biography and hagiography, and the fictional tales of religious heroes and heroines.

Biography, Hagiography & Bengali Religious History

Stewarts dissertation, The Biographical Images of Krsna Caitanya (1985), focused on the literatures dedicated to the Bengali god-man Krsna Caitanya (1486-1533) and how the community of believers articulated their understandings of this man deemed to be God on earth. [6] That study led him to work with Edward C. Dimock, Jr., to translate the monumental Bengali and Sanskrit hagiography of Caitanya, which dates from the late sixteenth century. That work, a collaboration of nearly two decades, eventually appeared as Volume 56 in the Harvard Oriental Series as The Caitanya Caritāmrta of Krsnadāsa Kavirāja (1999). [7] Stewart's interpretive study of the role of text - deliberately delayed until the translation could be published so that readers would have access to the primary materials - analyzed the text's role in shaping the decentered community of Vaisnavas, who were located in Bengal, Odisha, and the Braj regions of north India. That study, which examined the entirety of the sixteenth century Bengali and Sanskrit hagiographical tradition dedicated to Caitanya, was titled The Final World, The Caitanya Caritāmrta and the Grammar of Religious Tradition (2010). [8] John Stratton Hawley, Claire Tow Professor of Religion at Barnard College, celebrates The Final Word as "a majestic and comprehensive book by any standard, ... the scholarly work of a lifetime." [9]

Each of Stewart's forays into biography and hagiography in early modern Bengal asks a central question: What religious work do life stories of historical figures undertake? Stewart seeks to understand not just the content of the stories, but why these stories were written the way they were, deploying a hermeneutic that combined literary critical analyses, rhetorical strategies of the authors, and historical reconstruction of the early community, with a special eye toward the politics of the texts for the people who circulate them. These questions conditioned the direction of Stewart's second major body of work on the fabulous tales of Sufi saints and their Hindu analogues in the early modern period.

It was also during this period that Stewart collaborated with the poet Chase Twichell to translate Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore's Vaisnava poetry as The Lover of God (2003), showcasing one of the most prolific literary lives in modern poetry in a bilingual format. [10] The Religious Studies Review lauds the "attractive volume" as a "wonderful recreation... product of the marriage of Stewart's mastery of the linguistic and cultural forms and Twichell's ability to produce 'faithful, but not literal' English translations." [11]

Fictional Biography/Hagiography

Two articles -- "Alternate Structures of Authority" (2000) and "In Search of Equivalence" (2001) -- marked a shift in Stewart's focus as he grappled with the figure of Satya Pīr and other fictional figures of early modern Bengali religion who seemed somehow to combine Islamic and Hindu traditions. [12] [13] The second of those essays eschewed the label of syncretism in favor of "search for equivalence," using translation as a theoretical perspective. Relevant to those analytical moves, Stewart's own unabridged anthology of translations of the tales of the fabled figure, Satya Pīr, can be found in the volume titled Fabulous Females and Peerless Pīrs: Tales of Mad Adventure in Old Bengal (2004). [14] These marvelous stories demonstrate how Satya Pīr aids women who have been compromised by the foolish decisions made by the men around them and how, using their own devices, they manage to set the world back in order. Rachel F. McDermott, Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures at Barnard College, describes Fabulous Females and Peerless Pīrs as "a tantalizing gem" that establishes Stewart as "the expert on Satya Pīr." [15]

Stewart's recent monograph, Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination (2019), extends the inquiry into storytelling, a study of the fabulous accounts of Sufi saints, both male and female, ranging from who sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. [16] That study won the 2021 Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy Prize for best senior monograph in South Asia from the Association for Asian Studies: [17] [18]

Tony K. Stewart opens up an entire genre of popular Bengali literature to serious scholarly scrutiny. Although pīr-kathas, or tales about the fabulous deeds of Sufi saints, have flourished since at least the sixteenth century in both oral and written forms, they were largely ignored by scholars due to their magical character and lowbrow origins. Stewart demonstrates, through deep familiarity with this Bengali genre and the creative application of literary critical methods, that these Sufi-inspired stories of adventure and marvel were far more than mere entertainment. Pīr-kathas also performed the valuable cultural role of introducing Islamic elements into a familiar regional landscape of story-telling about the supernatural. Weaving Islamic and Indic cosmologies together in a multitude of ways, over time these stories increasingly envisioned a shared world in which Islamic perspectives were ascendant. The fresh light cast on the processes of religious conversion in Witness to Marvels make it significant far beyond the realm of Bengali literature, religion, and history. It also offers both inspiration and new methods for the study of numerous genres of tale and literature that scholars from precolonial South Asia have neglected for too long. [19]

What cultural work do fictional stories of religious heroes and heroines, of gods and goddesses undertake? Because these stories are fictions, they cannot articulate explicit theology, yet they are celebrated as religious texts. The work of the text is discernible in part by the way it operates within what Stewart has defined as the Imaginaire (see Chapter Four of Witness to Marvels to review Stewart's work on the subject). [16] The Imaginaire can be understood as the arena in which a text or any other cultural production comes into existence, the conditions that make it possible. Inspired by Jonathan Culler's article "Presupposition and Intertextuality" (1976), [20] a text will have precursors, both explicit and implicit, and will ipso facto assume pragmatic presuppositions, such as language and genre, as well as logical presuppositions, such as what constitutes a valid argument. But within that creative arena, new ideas can be articulated, and so it was with the texts found in Witness to Marvels as Muslim authors articulated a new vision for Bengali culture, one in which Islam was normalized as patently Bengali, while at the same time these authors wrote Bengal into a larger Islamic history. As reviewed in Marginalia, Stewart's work in Witness to Marvels challenges "modern tendencies to read these narratives as either fiction or history, making us aware of our blind spots. More importantly, [Stewart] expose[s] the distinct histories of these blind spots and draw attention to the modes of meaning-making that were deliberately overridden in the [Indian] subcontinent's colonial hagiography." [21]

In keeping with Stewart's desire to make primary texts available for the areas of his study, the fantastical tales that form the nucleus of Witness to Marvels are now available in unabridged translations in Needle at the Bottom of the Sea: Bengali Tales from the Lands of the Eighteen Tides (2023). [22] "Brimming with fantasy and excitement," these interlocking tales share common heroes and heroines that continue to shape religious sensibilities in the Bangla-speaking world. [23] Faisal Devji, Professor of History at the University of Oxford, proclaimed Needle at the Bottom of the Sea a "major accomplishment, revealing a sophisticated understanding of inter religious and intercaste relations in the register of the marvelous." [24] Needle at the Bottom of the Sea has also been reviewed by Wendy Doniger at the New York Review of Books, celebrating Stewart's ability to communicate complex tales of karma and the human spirit to modern audiences, and by Shyamasri Maji in Asian Review of Books, who declares the volume "a work of great scholarship." [25] [26]

Institutional Commitments

While at North Carolina State University (1986-2011), Stewart taught in the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, [27] [28] and was adjunct in Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. With the instrumental help of Prof. David Gilmartin in the Department of History at North Carolina State University, Stewart founded and directed the North Carolina Center for South Asian Studies, a U.S. Department of Education Title IV National Resource Center (2000-2003, 2003-2006). While Director, Stewart served as Secretary to the American Institute of Indian Studies (1991-1995) and Trustee (1988-1995). Stewart collaborated on several projects developing digital tools for the study of Indic languages, including the Digital Dictionaries of South Asia, a subset of the Digital South Asia Library, and Afroz Taj's Door Into Hindi.

More recently, Stewart was appointed Research Fellow, St. Antony's College, Oxford (2016-2017), and has been thrice named the J.P. and Beena Khaitan Visiting Fellow of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies (2016-2017, 2022, 2023). [29] Stewart has undertaken more than eight years of research residences in India and Bangladesh under the auspices of the American Institute of Indian Studies, the American Institute of Bangladesh Studies, Fulbright and Fulbright-Hays, and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Stewart was one of the founders and first Director of the South Asia Summer Language Institute at the University of Wisconsin (2002-2006) and founded and directed the Bangla Language Institute in Dhaka on the campus of Independent University, Bangladesh (2006-2010). Stewart is a member of the American Literary Translators Association and is a life member of the Association for Asian Studies, among other institutional memberships.

Publications

Stewart has authored six monographs and major translations, an edited volume, and more than fifty articles and short translations.

Monographs & Translations

Needle at the Bottom of the Sea: Bengali Tales from the Land of the Eighteen Tides. World Literatures in Translation Series. Oakland: University of California Press, In Press [2023]. [22]

Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2019, xxxi, 300pp. Bibliography, index. [16]

The Final Word: The ‘Caitanya Caritāmṛta’ and the Grammar of Religious Tradition. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 2010. xxx, 442pp. Glossary, personae, bibliography, index. [8]

Fabulous Females and Peerless Pīrs: Tales of Mad Adventure in Old Bengal. Translations with Introduction. NewYork: Oxford University Press, 2004. xiv, 267pp. Glossary, bibliography, index. [14]

With Chase Twitchell, trans. The Lover of God. [Rabindranath Tagore’s Vaiṣṇava Poems.] With an Introduction and Postscript by Tony K. Stewart. Port Townsend, WA: Copper Canyon Press, 2003. xi, 121pp. Appendix. [10]

The ‘Caitanya Caritāmṛta’ of Kṛṣṇadāsa Kavirāja. Translated with commentary by Edward C. Dimock, Jr. Edited by Tony K. Stewart. With an introduction by the translator and the editor. Harvard Oriental Series no. 56. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999. xxxvi, 1171pp. Appendices, glossaries, bibliographies, indices. [7]

Select Articles

“The Power of the Secret: The Tantalizing Discourse of Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā Scholarship” in The Legacy of Vaiṣṇavismin Colonial Bengal. Edited by Ferdinando Sardelli and Lucien Wong. London: Routledge, 2020, pp.125-66. [30]

“Popular Sufi Narratives and the Parameters of the Bengali Imaginaire.” In Religion and Aesthetic Experience: Drama—Sermons—Literature. Edited by Jan Scholz and Max Stille. Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, 2018, pp. 173-195. [31]

“In Search of Equivalence: Conceiving Muslim-Hindu Encounter through Translation Theory.” Reprint in Figuring Religions: Comparing Ideas, Images, and Activities. Edited by Subha Pathak. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2013, pp. 229-62. Reprint in India’s Islamic Traditions: 711-1750. Edited by Richard M. Eaton. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp. 363-92. Reprint from History of Religions 40, no. 3 (Winter 2001): 261-88. [13]

“Religion in the Subjunctive: Vaiṣṇava Narrative, Sufi Counter-Narrative in Early Modern Bengal.” The Journal of Hindu Studies 6 (2013): 53-73. [32]

“Replicating Vaiṣṇava Worlds: Organizing Devotional Space through the Architectonics of the Maṇḍala." South Asian History and Culture 2, no. 2 (April 2011): 300-336. [33]

“The Subject and the Ostensible Subject: Mapping the Genre of Hagiography among South Asian Chishtīs.” Rethinking Islamic Studies: From Orientalism to Cosmopolitanism. Edited by Carl W. Ernst and Richard Martin. University of South Carolina Press, 2010, pp. 227-44.

“Reading for Kṛṣṇa’s Pleasure: Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Meditation, Literary Interiority, and the Phenomenology of Repetition.” Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies 14, no. 1 (Fall 2005): 243-80.

“Alternate Structures of Authority: Satya Pīr on the Frontiers of Bengal.” In Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia. Edited by David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000, pp. 21-54. Reissue: Delhi: India Research Press, 2002. [12]

“Pseudonymity, Subterfuge, and Paratext: The Vaiṣṇava Poetry of Rabindranath Tagore.” Golden Jubilee Lecture: Fifty Years of Glory and Achievements. Occasional Publication. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2002, 1-30.

and Edward C. Dimock, Jr., “Kṛttibāsa’s Apophatic Critique of Rāma’s Kingship” in Questioning Rāmāyaṇas, edited by Paula Richman. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000, 243-64. Simultaneousrelease: Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001.

“When Rāhu Devours the Moon: The Myth of the Birth of Kṛṣṇa Caitanya.” International Journal of Hindu Studies 1, no. 2 (August 1997): 221-64. [34]

“One Text from Many: The Caitanya caritāmṛta as ‘Classic’ and ‘Commentary’.” In According to Tradition: Hagiographical Writing in India. Edited by Winand M. Callewaert and Rupert Snell. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1994, 317-56.

“When Biographical Narratives Disagree: The Death of Kṛṣṇa Caitanya.” Numen 38, no. 2 (1991): 231-60. “Guides for the Inquisitive and Motivated: Selected Bengali Reference Materials.” South Asian Language Notes and Queries 21/22(Fall 1986-Spring 1987): 1-14. [35]

With Hena Basu. “Bāṁlāya prakāśita vaiṣṇava sāmayik patrikā: ekṭi tathya nirdeśikā sūcī” (an annotated referenceguide to Vaiṣṇava journals in Bengali). Baṅgīya Sāhitya Pariṣat Patrikā 90, no. 2 (Vaiśākha 1390 BS [1983]): 1-8.

Select Short Translations

“The Tales of Mānik Pīr: Protector of Cows in Bengal.” In Tales of God’s Friends: Islamic Hagiography in Translation. Edited by John Renard. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009, pp. 312-32.

“Tagore’s Vaiṣṇava Poetry, Nos. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22.” Translated with Chase Twitchell. Brick: A Literary Journal 71 (Summer 2003).

and Robin Rinehart. “The Anonymous Āgama Prakāśa: Preface to a 19th c. Gujarati Polemic” In Tantra in Practice, edited by David Gordon White. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, 266-85.

“Encountering the Smallpox Goddess: The Auspicious Song of Śītalā.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited byDonald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, 389-98. Re- anthologized in Religions of Asia in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002, 79-87.

“The Exemplary Devotion of the ‘Servant of Hari’.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, 564-77. Re-anthologized in Religions of Asia in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002, 136-49.

“The Goddess Ṣaṣṭhī Protects Children.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr.Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1995, 352-66.

“The Rescue of Two Drunkards.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1995, 375-88.

“Satya Pīr: Muslim Holy Man and Hindu God.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, 578-97.

References

  1. ^ "Tony K. Stewart: books, biography, latest update". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  2. ^ a b Oct 3; 2011; Am, 8:13. "Tony Stewart". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2023-03-13. {{ cite web}}: |last2= has numeric name ( help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link)
  3. ^ https://news.vanderbilt.edu/files/2022-Emeriti-faculty-bios.pdf
  4. ^ Owens, Ann Marie Deer (21 January 2013). "Endowed chair celebration honors nine Vanderbilt faculty". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  5. ^ Congress, The Library of. "Stewart, Tony K., 1954- - LC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies | Library of Congress, from LC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies (Library of Congress)". id.loc.gov. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  6. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (1985). THE BIOGRAPHICAL IMAGES OF KRSNA-CAITANYA: A STUDY IN THE PERCEPTION OF DIVINITY. ProQuest  252120451.
  7. ^ a b Caitanya Caritamrta of Krsnadasa Kaviraja — Edward C. Dimock, Jr., Tony K. Stewart. Harvard Oriental Series. Harvard University Press. 30 September 2000. ISBN  9780674002852. Retrieved 2023-03-14. {{ cite book}}: |website= ignored ( help)
  8. ^ a b The Final Word: The Caitanya Caritamrita and the Grammar of Religious Tradition. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 2010-04-21. ISBN  978-0-19-539272-2.
  9. ^ Hawley, J. S. (2010-12-01). "The Final Word: The Caitanya Caritamrta and the Grammar of Religious Tradition. By Tony K. Stewart". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 79 (1): 251–254. doi: 10.1093/jaarel/lfq097. ISSN  0002-7189.
  10. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2003). The Lover of God. Copper Canyon Press. ISBN  9781556591969.
  11. ^ Religious Studies Review. "The Lover of God by Rabindranath Tagore".
  12. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2000-01-01). "Alternate Structures of Authority: Satya Pīr on the Frontiers of Bengal". Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identity in Islamicate South Asia.
  13. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2001). "In Search of Equivalence: Conceiving Muslim-Hindu Encounter through Translation Theory". History of Religions. 40 (3): 260–287. doi: 10.1086/463635. ISSN  0018-2710. JSTOR  3176699. S2CID  162924402.
  14. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2004). Fabulous Females and Peerless Pirs: Tales of Mad Adventure in Old Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN  9780195165296.
  15. ^ McDermott, Rachel Fell (2007). "Review of Fabulous Females and Peerless Pīrs: Tales of Mad Adventure in Old Bengal". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 127 (1): 105–106. ISSN  0003-0279. JSTOR  20297233.
  16. ^ a b c Stewart, Tony K. (2019). Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination. University of California Press. ISBN  9780520306332.
  17. ^ Apr 8; 2021; Pm, 4:45. "Stewart receives prestigious book prize for 'Witness to Marvels'". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2023-03-13. {{ cite web}}: |last2= has numeric name ( help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link)
  18. ^ "UC Press February Award Winners". UC Press Blog. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  19. ^ "Coomaraswamy Prize - Association for Asian Studies". 2021-07-24. Archived from the original on 2021-07-24. Retrieved 2023-04-10.{{ cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link)
  20. ^ Culler, Jonathan (1976). "Presupposition and Intertextuality". MLN. 91 (6): 1380–1396. doi: 10.2307/2907142. ISSN  0026-7910. JSTOR  2907142.
  21. ^ Ijaz, Aqsa (April 9, 2021). "Storytelling In Indo-Persian Literary Traditions: Aqsa Ijaz on Pasha Mohamad Khan and Tony K. Stewart". The Marginalia Review.
  22. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2019). Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination. University of California Press. ISBN  9780520306332.
  23. ^ "Q&A with Tony K. Stewart, Translator of Needle at the Bottom of the Sea". UC Press Blog. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  24. ^ Devji, Faisal (September 2019). Review of Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination. Univ of California Press. ISBN  9780520306332.
  25. ^ Doniger, Wendy (May 11, 2023). "Of Crocodiles and Kings". New York Review of Books.
  26. ^ Maji, Shyamasri (June 5, 2023). ""Needle at the Bottom of the Sea: Bengali Tales from the Land of the Eighteen Tides" by Tony K Stewart". Asian Review of Books.
  27. ^ "Department History". Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  28. ^ "Looking Back: Department News from the Past". Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies. 2020-06-09. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  29. ^ "J.P. and Beena Khaitan Visiting Fellows". Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  30. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (2020-01-01). ""The Power of the Secret: the Tantalising Discourse of Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā Scholarship"". The Legacy of Vaiṣṇavism in Colonial Bengal.
  31. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (2018-01-01). "Popular Sufi Narratives and the Parameters of the Bengali Imaginaire". Religion and Aesthetic Experience: Drama—Sermons—Literature. Edited by Jan Scholz and Max Stille. Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, 2018, Pp. 173-195.
  32. ^ Stewart, T. K. (2013). "Religion in the Subjunctive: Vaisnava Narrative, Sufi Counter-Narrative in Early Modern Bengal". The Journal of Hindu Studies. 6 (1): 52–72. doi: 10.1093/jhs/hit013. ISSN  1756-4255.
  33. ^ Stewart, Tony K. ""Replicating Vaisnava Worlds: Organizing Devotional Space through the Architectonics of the Mandala"". {{ cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ( help)
  34. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (1997). "When Rāhu Devours the Moon: The Myth of the Birth of Kṛṣṇa Caitanya". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 1 (2): 221–264. doi: 10.1007/s11407-997-0001-1. ISSN  1022-4556. JSTOR  20106473. S2CID  145220893.
  35. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (1991). "When Biographical Narratives Disagree: The Death of Kṛṣṇa Caitanya". Numen. 38 (2): 231–260. doi: 10.2307/3269835. ISSN  0029-5973. JSTOR  3269835.
Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Draft:Tony_K._Stewart&oldid=1215762666"
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Tony K. Stewart
Born
Millersburg, Kentucky
TitleGertrude Conaway Vanderbilt Chair in Humanities, Emeritus; Professor of Religious Studies, Emeritus
Academic background
EducationPh.D.
Alma materThe University of Chicago (Ph.D., 1985)

The University of Chicago (A.M., 1981)

Western Kentucky University (B.A., 1976)
Doctoral advisorEdward C. Dimock, Jr.
Academic work
DisciplineReligious Studies, Bengali Studies
InstitutionsVanderbilt University

Tony K. Stewart is a specialist in the literatures and religions of the Bengali-speaking world, with a focus on the ways early modern narratives shape Bengali culture. [1]

Currently, Stewart is Gertrude Conaway Vanderbilt Chair in Humanities, Emeritus, and Professor of Religious Studies, Emeritus, Vanderbilt University, where he served as chair of Religious Studies (2011-2020), before retiring from teaching in 2021. [2] [3] [4]

Life & Education

Born in rural Kentucky in 1954, Stewart grew up in the village of Millersburg and the town of Paris. [5] He graduated from Bourbon County High School in 1972.

Initially entering university to study accounting, Stewart shifted to take a B.A. degree (1976) in Religious Studies (Asian emphasis) and German Language and Literature at Western Kentucky University. He earned his A.M. (1981) and Ph.D. (1985) in the Department of South Asian Languages and Civilizations at The University of Chicago. Stewart matriculated at Chicago in 1976 to study under the direction of Edward C. Dimock, Jr., the effective founder of Bengal studies in the United States. The combined focus on language training and cultural studies offered by The University of Chicago in the 1970s led Stewart to develop a deep commitment to literary translation as a natural companion to historical hermeneutics of texts and traditions, a commitment that has marked his career. [2]

Languages

Bangla/Bengali, Dobhashi/Musalmani Bangla, Brajabuli, Sanskrit, French, and German.

Scholarship & Intellectual Influences

Stewart's research program can be broken into two closely inter-related trajectories: traditional biography and hagiography, and the fictional tales of religious heroes and heroines.

Biography, Hagiography & Bengali Religious History

Stewarts dissertation, The Biographical Images of Krsna Caitanya (1985), focused on the literatures dedicated to the Bengali god-man Krsna Caitanya (1486-1533) and how the community of believers articulated their understandings of this man deemed to be God on earth. [6] That study led him to work with Edward C. Dimock, Jr., to translate the monumental Bengali and Sanskrit hagiography of Caitanya, which dates from the late sixteenth century. That work, a collaboration of nearly two decades, eventually appeared as Volume 56 in the Harvard Oriental Series as The Caitanya Caritāmrta of Krsnadāsa Kavirāja (1999). [7] Stewart's interpretive study of the role of text - deliberately delayed until the translation could be published so that readers would have access to the primary materials - analyzed the text's role in shaping the decentered community of Vaisnavas, who were located in Bengal, Odisha, and the Braj regions of north India. That study, which examined the entirety of the sixteenth century Bengali and Sanskrit hagiographical tradition dedicated to Caitanya, was titled The Final World, The Caitanya Caritāmrta and the Grammar of Religious Tradition (2010). [8] John Stratton Hawley, Claire Tow Professor of Religion at Barnard College, celebrates The Final Word as "a majestic and comprehensive book by any standard, ... the scholarly work of a lifetime." [9]

Each of Stewart's forays into biography and hagiography in early modern Bengal asks a central question: What religious work do life stories of historical figures undertake? Stewart seeks to understand not just the content of the stories, but why these stories were written the way they were, deploying a hermeneutic that combined literary critical analyses, rhetorical strategies of the authors, and historical reconstruction of the early community, with a special eye toward the politics of the texts for the people who circulate them. These questions conditioned the direction of Stewart's second major body of work on the fabulous tales of Sufi saints and their Hindu analogues in the early modern period.

It was also during this period that Stewart collaborated with the poet Chase Twichell to translate Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore's Vaisnava poetry as The Lover of God (2003), showcasing one of the most prolific literary lives in modern poetry in a bilingual format. [10] The Religious Studies Review lauds the "attractive volume" as a "wonderful recreation... product of the marriage of Stewart's mastery of the linguistic and cultural forms and Twichell's ability to produce 'faithful, but not literal' English translations." [11]

Fictional Biography/Hagiography

Two articles -- "Alternate Structures of Authority" (2000) and "In Search of Equivalence" (2001) -- marked a shift in Stewart's focus as he grappled with the figure of Satya Pīr and other fictional figures of early modern Bengali religion who seemed somehow to combine Islamic and Hindu traditions. [12] [13] The second of those essays eschewed the label of syncretism in favor of "search for equivalence," using translation as a theoretical perspective. Relevant to those analytical moves, Stewart's own unabridged anthology of translations of the tales of the fabled figure, Satya Pīr, can be found in the volume titled Fabulous Females and Peerless Pīrs: Tales of Mad Adventure in Old Bengal (2004). [14] These marvelous stories demonstrate how Satya Pīr aids women who have been compromised by the foolish decisions made by the men around them and how, using their own devices, they manage to set the world back in order. Rachel F. McDermott, Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures at Barnard College, describes Fabulous Females and Peerless Pīrs as "a tantalizing gem" that establishes Stewart as "the expert on Satya Pīr." [15]

Stewart's recent monograph, Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination (2019), extends the inquiry into storytelling, a study of the fabulous accounts of Sufi saints, both male and female, ranging from who sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. [16] That study won the 2021 Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy Prize for best senior monograph in South Asia from the Association for Asian Studies: [17] [18]

Tony K. Stewart opens up an entire genre of popular Bengali literature to serious scholarly scrutiny. Although pīr-kathas, or tales about the fabulous deeds of Sufi saints, have flourished since at least the sixteenth century in both oral and written forms, they were largely ignored by scholars due to their magical character and lowbrow origins. Stewart demonstrates, through deep familiarity with this Bengali genre and the creative application of literary critical methods, that these Sufi-inspired stories of adventure and marvel were far more than mere entertainment. Pīr-kathas also performed the valuable cultural role of introducing Islamic elements into a familiar regional landscape of story-telling about the supernatural. Weaving Islamic and Indic cosmologies together in a multitude of ways, over time these stories increasingly envisioned a shared world in which Islamic perspectives were ascendant. The fresh light cast on the processes of religious conversion in Witness to Marvels make it significant far beyond the realm of Bengali literature, religion, and history. It also offers both inspiration and new methods for the study of numerous genres of tale and literature that scholars from precolonial South Asia have neglected for too long. [19]

What cultural work do fictional stories of religious heroes and heroines, of gods and goddesses undertake? Because these stories are fictions, they cannot articulate explicit theology, yet they are celebrated as religious texts. The work of the text is discernible in part by the way it operates within what Stewart has defined as the Imaginaire (see Chapter Four of Witness to Marvels to review Stewart's work on the subject). [16] The Imaginaire can be understood as the arena in which a text or any other cultural production comes into existence, the conditions that make it possible. Inspired by Jonathan Culler's article "Presupposition and Intertextuality" (1976), [20] a text will have precursors, both explicit and implicit, and will ipso facto assume pragmatic presuppositions, such as language and genre, as well as logical presuppositions, such as what constitutes a valid argument. But within that creative arena, new ideas can be articulated, and so it was with the texts found in Witness to Marvels as Muslim authors articulated a new vision for Bengali culture, one in which Islam was normalized as patently Bengali, while at the same time these authors wrote Bengal into a larger Islamic history. As reviewed in Marginalia, Stewart's work in Witness to Marvels challenges "modern tendencies to read these narratives as either fiction or history, making us aware of our blind spots. More importantly, [Stewart] expose[s] the distinct histories of these blind spots and draw attention to the modes of meaning-making that were deliberately overridden in the [Indian] subcontinent's colonial hagiography." [21]

In keeping with Stewart's desire to make primary texts available for the areas of his study, the fantastical tales that form the nucleus of Witness to Marvels are now available in unabridged translations in Needle at the Bottom of the Sea: Bengali Tales from the Lands of the Eighteen Tides (2023). [22] "Brimming with fantasy and excitement," these interlocking tales share common heroes and heroines that continue to shape religious sensibilities in the Bangla-speaking world. [23] Faisal Devji, Professor of History at the University of Oxford, proclaimed Needle at the Bottom of the Sea a "major accomplishment, revealing a sophisticated understanding of inter religious and intercaste relations in the register of the marvelous." [24] Needle at the Bottom of the Sea has also been reviewed by Wendy Doniger at the New York Review of Books, celebrating Stewart's ability to communicate complex tales of karma and the human spirit to modern audiences, and by Shyamasri Maji in Asian Review of Books, who declares the volume "a work of great scholarship." [25] [26]

Institutional Commitments

While at North Carolina State University (1986-2011), Stewart taught in the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, [27] [28] and was adjunct in Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. With the instrumental help of Prof. David Gilmartin in the Department of History at North Carolina State University, Stewart founded and directed the North Carolina Center for South Asian Studies, a U.S. Department of Education Title IV National Resource Center (2000-2003, 2003-2006). While Director, Stewart served as Secretary to the American Institute of Indian Studies (1991-1995) and Trustee (1988-1995). Stewart collaborated on several projects developing digital tools for the study of Indic languages, including the Digital Dictionaries of South Asia, a subset of the Digital South Asia Library, and Afroz Taj's Door Into Hindi.

More recently, Stewart was appointed Research Fellow, St. Antony's College, Oxford (2016-2017), and has been thrice named the J.P. and Beena Khaitan Visiting Fellow of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies (2016-2017, 2022, 2023). [29] Stewart has undertaken more than eight years of research residences in India and Bangladesh under the auspices of the American Institute of Indian Studies, the American Institute of Bangladesh Studies, Fulbright and Fulbright-Hays, and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Stewart was one of the founders and first Director of the South Asia Summer Language Institute at the University of Wisconsin (2002-2006) and founded and directed the Bangla Language Institute in Dhaka on the campus of Independent University, Bangladesh (2006-2010). Stewart is a member of the American Literary Translators Association and is a life member of the Association for Asian Studies, among other institutional memberships.

Publications

Stewart has authored six monographs and major translations, an edited volume, and more than fifty articles and short translations.

Monographs & Translations

Needle at the Bottom of the Sea: Bengali Tales from the Land of the Eighteen Tides. World Literatures in Translation Series. Oakland: University of California Press, In Press [2023]. [22]

Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2019, xxxi, 300pp. Bibliography, index. [16]

The Final Word: The ‘Caitanya Caritāmṛta’ and the Grammar of Religious Tradition. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 2010. xxx, 442pp. Glossary, personae, bibliography, index. [8]

Fabulous Females and Peerless Pīrs: Tales of Mad Adventure in Old Bengal. Translations with Introduction. NewYork: Oxford University Press, 2004. xiv, 267pp. Glossary, bibliography, index. [14]

With Chase Twitchell, trans. The Lover of God. [Rabindranath Tagore’s Vaiṣṇava Poems.] With an Introduction and Postscript by Tony K. Stewart. Port Townsend, WA: Copper Canyon Press, 2003. xi, 121pp. Appendix. [10]

The ‘Caitanya Caritāmṛta’ of Kṛṣṇadāsa Kavirāja. Translated with commentary by Edward C. Dimock, Jr. Edited by Tony K. Stewart. With an introduction by the translator and the editor. Harvard Oriental Series no. 56. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999. xxxvi, 1171pp. Appendices, glossaries, bibliographies, indices. [7]

Select Articles

“The Power of the Secret: The Tantalizing Discourse of Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā Scholarship” in The Legacy of Vaiṣṇavismin Colonial Bengal. Edited by Ferdinando Sardelli and Lucien Wong. London: Routledge, 2020, pp.125-66. [30]

“Popular Sufi Narratives and the Parameters of the Bengali Imaginaire.” In Religion and Aesthetic Experience: Drama—Sermons—Literature. Edited by Jan Scholz and Max Stille. Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, 2018, pp. 173-195. [31]

“In Search of Equivalence: Conceiving Muslim-Hindu Encounter through Translation Theory.” Reprint in Figuring Religions: Comparing Ideas, Images, and Activities. Edited by Subha Pathak. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2013, pp. 229-62. Reprint in India’s Islamic Traditions: 711-1750. Edited by Richard M. Eaton. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp. 363-92. Reprint from History of Religions 40, no. 3 (Winter 2001): 261-88. [13]

“Religion in the Subjunctive: Vaiṣṇava Narrative, Sufi Counter-Narrative in Early Modern Bengal.” The Journal of Hindu Studies 6 (2013): 53-73. [32]

“Replicating Vaiṣṇava Worlds: Organizing Devotional Space through the Architectonics of the Maṇḍala." South Asian History and Culture 2, no. 2 (April 2011): 300-336. [33]

“The Subject and the Ostensible Subject: Mapping the Genre of Hagiography among South Asian Chishtīs.” Rethinking Islamic Studies: From Orientalism to Cosmopolitanism. Edited by Carl W. Ernst and Richard Martin. University of South Carolina Press, 2010, pp. 227-44.

“Reading for Kṛṣṇa’s Pleasure: Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Meditation, Literary Interiority, and the Phenomenology of Repetition.” Journal of Vaiṣṇava Studies 14, no. 1 (Fall 2005): 243-80.

“Alternate Structures of Authority: Satya Pīr on the Frontiers of Bengal.” In Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia. Edited by David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000, pp. 21-54. Reissue: Delhi: India Research Press, 2002. [12]

“Pseudonymity, Subterfuge, and Paratext: The Vaiṣṇava Poetry of Rabindranath Tagore.” Golden Jubilee Lecture: Fifty Years of Glory and Achievements. Occasional Publication. Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2002, 1-30.

and Edward C. Dimock, Jr., “Kṛttibāsa’s Apophatic Critique of Rāma’s Kingship” in Questioning Rāmāyaṇas, edited by Paula Richman. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000, 243-64. Simultaneousrelease: Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001.

“When Rāhu Devours the Moon: The Myth of the Birth of Kṛṣṇa Caitanya.” International Journal of Hindu Studies 1, no. 2 (August 1997): 221-64. [34]

“One Text from Many: The Caitanya caritāmṛta as ‘Classic’ and ‘Commentary’.” In According to Tradition: Hagiographical Writing in India. Edited by Winand M. Callewaert and Rupert Snell. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1994, 317-56.

“When Biographical Narratives Disagree: The Death of Kṛṣṇa Caitanya.” Numen 38, no. 2 (1991): 231-60. “Guides for the Inquisitive and Motivated: Selected Bengali Reference Materials.” South Asian Language Notes and Queries 21/22(Fall 1986-Spring 1987): 1-14. [35]

With Hena Basu. “Bāṁlāya prakāśita vaiṣṇava sāmayik patrikā: ekṭi tathya nirdeśikā sūcī” (an annotated referenceguide to Vaiṣṇava journals in Bengali). Baṅgīya Sāhitya Pariṣat Patrikā 90, no. 2 (Vaiśākha 1390 BS [1983]): 1-8.

Select Short Translations

“The Tales of Mānik Pīr: Protector of Cows in Bengal.” In Tales of God’s Friends: Islamic Hagiography in Translation. Edited by John Renard. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009, pp. 312-32.

“Tagore’s Vaiṣṇava Poetry, Nos. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22.” Translated with Chase Twitchell. Brick: A Literary Journal 71 (Summer 2003).

and Robin Rinehart. “The Anonymous Āgama Prakāśa: Preface to a 19th c. Gujarati Polemic” In Tantra in Practice, edited by David Gordon White. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000, 266-85.

“Encountering the Smallpox Goddess: The Auspicious Song of Śītalā.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited byDonald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, 389-98. Re- anthologized in Religions of Asia in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002, 79-87.

“The Exemplary Devotion of the ‘Servant of Hari’.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, 564-77. Re-anthologized in Religions of Asia in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002, 136-49.

“The Goddess Ṣaṣṭhī Protects Children.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr.Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1995, 352-66.

“The Rescue of Two Drunkards.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1995, 375-88.

“Satya Pīr: Muslim Holy Man and Hindu God.” In Religions of India in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, 578-97.

References

  1. ^ "Tony K. Stewart: books, biography, latest update". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  2. ^ a b Oct 3; 2011; Am, 8:13. "Tony Stewart". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2023-03-13. {{ cite web}}: |last2= has numeric name ( help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link)
  3. ^ https://news.vanderbilt.edu/files/2022-Emeriti-faculty-bios.pdf
  4. ^ Owens, Ann Marie Deer (21 January 2013). "Endowed chair celebration honors nine Vanderbilt faculty". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  5. ^ Congress, The Library of. "Stewart, Tony K., 1954- - LC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies | Library of Congress, from LC Linked Data Service: Authorities and Vocabularies (Library of Congress)". id.loc.gov. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  6. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (1985). THE BIOGRAPHICAL IMAGES OF KRSNA-CAITANYA: A STUDY IN THE PERCEPTION OF DIVINITY. ProQuest  252120451.
  7. ^ a b Caitanya Caritamrta of Krsnadasa Kaviraja — Edward C. Dimock, Jr., Tony K. Stewart. Harvard Oriental Series. Harvard University Press. 30 September 2000. ISBN  9780674002852. Retrieved 2023-03-14. {{ cite book}}: |website= ignored ( help)
  8. ^ a b The Final Word: The Caitanya Caritamrita and the Grammar of Religious Tradition. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 2010-04-21. ISBN  978-0-19-539272-2.
  9. ^ Hawley, J. S. (2010-12-01). "The Final Word: The Caitanya Caritamrta and the Grammar of Religious Tradition. By Tony K. Stewart". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 79 (1): 251–254. doi: 10.1093/jaarel/lfq097. ISSN  0002-7189.
  10. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2003). The Lover of God. Copper Canyon Press. ISBN  9781556591969.
  11. ^ Religious Studies Review. "The Lover of God by Rabindranath Tagore".
  12. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2000-01-01). "Alternate Structures of Authority: Satya Pīr on the Frontiers of Bengal". Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identity in Islamicate South Asia.
  13. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2001). "In Search of Equivalence: Conceiving Muslim-Hindu Encounter through Translation Theory". History of Religions. 40 (3): 260–287. doi: 10.1086/463635. ISSN  0018-2710. JSTOR  3176699. S2CID  162924402.
  14. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2004). Fabulous Females and Peerless Pirs: Tales of Mad Adventure in Old Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN  9780195165296.
  15. ^ McDermott, Rachel Fell (2007). "Review of Fabulous Females and Peerless Pīrs: Tales of Mad Adventure in Old Bengal". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 127 (1): 105–106. ISSN  0003-0279. JSTOR  20297233.
  16. ^ a b c Stewart, Tony K. (2019). Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination. University of California Press. ISBN  9780520306332.
  17. ^ Apr 8; 2021; Pm, 4:45. "Stewart receives prestigious book prize for 'Witness to Marvels'". Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 2023-03-13. {{ cite web}}: |last2= has numeric name ( help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link)
  18. ^ "UC Press February Award Winners". UC Press Blog. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  19. ^ "Coomaraswamy Prize - Association for Asian Studies". 2021-07-24. Archived from the original on 2021-07-24. Retrieved 2023-04-10.{{ cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link)
  20. ^ Culler, Jonathan (1976). "Presupposition and Intertextuality". MLN. 91 (6): 1380–1396. doi: 10.2307/2907142. ISSN  0026-7910. JSTOR  2907142.
  21. ^ Ijaz, Aqsa (April 9, 2021). "Storytelling In Indo-Persian Literary Traditions: Aqsa Ijaz on Pasha Mohamad Khan and Tony K. Stewart". The Marginalia Review.
  22. ^ a b Stewart, Tony K. (2019). Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination. University of California Press. ISBN  9780520306332.
  23. ^ "Q&A with Tony K. Stewart, Translator of Needle at the Bottom of the Sea". UC Press Blog. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  24. ^ Devji, Faisal (September 2019). Review of Witness to Marvels: Sufism and Literary Imagination. Univ of California Press. ISBN  9780520306332.
  25. ^ Doniger, Wendy (May 11, 2023). "Of Crocodiles and Kings". New York Review of Books.
  26. ^ Maji, Shyamasri (June 5, 2023). ""Needle at the Bottom of the Sea: Bengali Tales from the Land of the Eighteen Tides" by Tony K Stewart". Asian Review of Books.
  27. ^ "Department History". Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  28. ^ "Looking Back: Department News from the Past". Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies. 2020-06-09. Retrieved 2023-04-10.
  29. ^ "J.P. and Beena Khaitan Visiting Fellows". Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  30. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (2020-01-01). ""The Power of the Secret: the Tantalising Discourse of Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā Scholarship"". The Legacy of Vaiṣṇavism in Colonial Bengal.
  31. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (2018-01-01). "Popular Sufi Narratives and the Parameters of the Bengali Imaginaire". Religion and Aesthetic Experience: Drama—Sermons—Literature. Edited by Jan Scholz and Max Stille. Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, 2018, Pp. 173-195.
  32. ^ Stewart, T. K. (2013). "Religion in the Subjunctive: Vaisnava Narrative, Sufi Counter-Narrative in Early Modern Bengal". The Journal of Hindu Studies. 6 (1): 52–72. doi: 10.1093/jhs/hit013. ISSN  1756-4255.
  33. ^ Stewart, Tony K. ""Replicating Vaisnava Worlds: Organizing Devotional Space through the Architectonics of the Mandala"". {{ cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ( help)
  34. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (1997). "When Rāhu Devours the Moon: The Myth of the Birth of Kṛṣṇa Caitanya". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 1 (2): 221–264. doi: 10.1007/s11407-997-0001-1. ISSN  1022-4556. JSTOR  20106473. S2CID  145220893.
  35. ^ Stewart, Tony K. (1991). "When Biographical Narratives Disagree: The Death of Kṛṣṇa Caitanya". Numen. 38 (2): 231–260. doi: 10.2307/3269835. ISSN  0029-5973. JSTOR  3269835.
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