Caulerpa taxifolia | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
(unranked): | Viridiplantae |
Division: | Chlorophyta |
Class: | Ulvophyceae |
Order: | Bryopsidales |
Family: | Caulerpaceae |
Genus: | Caulerpa |
Species: | C. taxifolia
|
Binomial name | |
Caulerpa taxifolia (M.Vahl) C.Agardh, 1817
[1]
|
Caulerpa taxifolia is a species of green seaweed, an alga of the genus Caulerpa, native to tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Caribbean Sea. [2] The species name taxifolia arises from the resemblance of its leaf-like fronds [3] to those of the yew (Taxus). [ citation needed]
A strain of the species bred for use in aquariums has established non-native populations in waters of the Mediterranean Sea, the United States, and Australia. [4] It is one of two species of algae listed in 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species compiled by the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group. [5]
C. taxifolia is light green [3] with stolons (stems) on the sea floor, from which sparsely-branched upright fronds of approximately 20–60 cm (8–24 in) in height arise. [6] Algae in the genus Caulerpa synthesize a mixture of toxins [7] termed caulerpicin, believed to impart a peppery taste to the plants. [8] The effects of the specific toxin synthesized by C. taxifolia, caulerpenyne, have been studied, [9] [10] with extracts from C. taxifolia being found to negatively affect P-glycoprotein-ATPase in the sea sponge G. cydonium. [11]
Like all members of the genus Caulerpa, C. taxifolia consists of a single cell with many nuclei. The algae has been identified as the largest known single-celled organism. [12] Wild-type C. taxifolia is monoecious. [13]
Caulerpa species are commonly used in aquaria for their aesthetic qualities and ability to control the growth of undesired species. [14] C. taxifolia has been cultivated for use in aquaria in western Europe since the early 1970s. [15] A clone of the alga that was resistant to cold was observed in the tropical aquarium at the Wilhelma Zoo in Stuttgart [16] and further bred by exposure to chemicals and ultraviolet light. [17] The zoo distributed the strain to other aquaria, including the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco. [16]
The aquarium strain is morphologically identical to native populations of the species. [3] However, a 2008 study found that a population of the aquarium strain near Caloundra, Australia exhibited markedly reduced sexual reproduction, with only male plants present during some reproductive episodes. [13] The aquarium strain can survive out of water for up to 10 days in moist conditions, with 1 cm fragments capable of producing viable plants. [18]
Outside its native range, C. taxifolia is listed as an invasive species. [19] [20] It is one of two algae on the list of the world's 100 worst invasive species compiled by the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group. [5] The species is able to thrive in heavily polluted waters, [21] possibly contributing to its spread in the Mediterranean. [22]
The presence of C. taxifolia in the Mediterranean was first reported in 1984 [23] in an area adjacent to the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco. [24] Alexandre Meinesz, a marine biologist, attempted to alert Moroccan and French authorities to the spread of the strain in 1989, [16] but the governments failed to respond to his concerns. [25] The occurrence of the strain is generally believed to be due to an accidental release by the museum, [3] [26] but Monaco rejected the attribution and instead claimed that the observed algae was a mutant strain of C. mexicana. [25] By 1999, scientists agreed that it was no longer possible to eliminate the presence of C. taxifolia in the Mediterranean. [25]
A study published in 2002 found that beds of Posidonia oceanica in the Bay of Menton were not negatively affected eight years after colonization by C. taxifolia. [27] Other published studies have shown that fish diversity and biomass are equal or greater in Caulerpa meadows than in seagrass beds [28] and that Caulerpa had no effect on composition or richness of fish species. [29]
Studies in 1998 [15] and 2001 [23] found that the strain observed in the Mediterranean was genetically identical to aquarium strains, with similarities to an additional population in Australia.
A 2007 study found that a native bivalve mollusc species was negatively affected by the presence of C. taxifolia, but that the effect was not necessarily different from that of native seagrass species. [30] A 2010 study indicated that the effect of detritus from C. taxifolia negatively impacted abundance and species richness. [31]
C. taxifolia was found in waters near San Diego, California, in 2000, [32] where chlorine bleach was used in efforts to eradicate the strain. [33] The strain was declared eradicated from Agua Hedionda Lagoon in 2006. [34] California passed a law in 2001 forbidding the possession, sale, transport, or release of Caulerpa taxifolia within the state. [35] The Mediterranean clone of C. taxifolia was listed as a noxious weed in 1999 [36] by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, prohibiting interstate sale and transport of the strain without a permit under the Noxious Weed Act and Plant Protection Act. [24] [37]
C. taxifolia may become entangled in fishing gear and boat propellers. [4]
C. taxifolia may be controlled via mechanical removal, poisoning with chlorine, or application of salt. [6] Researchers at the University of Nice investigated possible use of a species of sea slug, Elysia subornata, as a possible natural control method, but found that it was not suitable for use in the Mediterranean due to cold winter water temperatures and insufficient population density. [38]
Caulerpa taxifolia | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
(unranked): | Viridiplantae |
Division: | Chlorophyta |
Class: | Ulvophyceae |
Order: | Bryopsidales |
Family: | Caulerpaceae |
Genus: | Caulerpa |
Species: | C. taxifolia
|
Binomial name | |
Caulerpa taxifolia (M.Vahl) C.Agardh, 1817
[1]
|
Caulerpa taxifolia is a species of green seaweed, an alga of the genus Caulerpa, native to tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Caribbean Sea. [2] The species name taxifolia arises from the resemblance of its leaf-like fronds [3] to those of the yew (Taxus). [ citation needed]
A strain of the species bred for use in aquariums has established non-native populations in waters of the Mediterranean Sea, the United States, and Australia. [4] It is one of two species of algae listed in 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species compiled by the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group. [5]
C. taxifolia is light green [3] with stolons (stems) on the sea floor, from which sparsely-branched upright fronds of approximately 20–60 cm (8–24 in) in height arise. [6] Algae in the genus Caulerpa synthesize a mixture of toxins [7] termed caulerpicin, believed to impart a peppery taste to the plants. [8] The effects of the specific toxin synthesized by C. taxifolia, caulerpenyne, have been studied, [9] [10] with extracts from C. taxifolia being found to negatively affect P-glycoprotein-ATPase in the sea sponge G. cydonium. [11]
Like all members of the genus Caulerpa, C. taxifolia consists of a single cell with many nuclei. The algae has been identified as the largest known single-celled organism. [12] Wild-type C. taxifolia is monoecious. [13]
Caulerpa species are commonly used in aquaria for their aesthetic qualities and ability to control the growth of undesired species. [14] C. taxifolia has been cultivated for use in aquaria in western Europe since the early 1970s. [15] A clone of the alga that was resistant to cold was observed in the tropical aquarium at the Wilhelma Zoo in Stuttgart [16] and further bred by exposure to chemicals and ultraviolet light. [17] The zoo distributed the strain to other aquaria, including the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco. [16]
The aquarium strain is morphologically identical to native populations of the species. [3] However, a 2008 study found that a population of the aquarium strain near Caloundra, Australia exhibited markedly reduced sexual reproduction, with only male plants present during some reproductive episodes. [13] The aquarium strain can survive out of water for up to 10 days in moist conditions, with 1 cm fragments capable of producing viable plants. [18]
Outside its native range, C. taxifolia is listed as an invasive species. [19] [20] It is one of two algae on the list of the world's 100 worst invasive species compiled by the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group. [5] The species is able to thrive in heavily polluted waters, [21] possibly contributing to its spread in the Mediterranean. [22]
The presence of C. taxifolia in the Mediterranean was first reported in 1984 [23] in an area adjacent to the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco. [24] Alexandre Meinesz, a marine biologist, attempted to alert Moroccan and French authorities to the spread of the strain in 1989, [16] but the governments failed to respond to his concerns. [25] The occurrence of the strain is generally believed to be due to an accidental release by the museum, [3] [26] but Monaco rejected the attribution and instead claimed that the observed algae was a mutant strain of C. mexicana. [25] By 1999, scientists agreed that it was no longer possible to eliminate the presence of C. taxifolia in the Mediterranean. [25]
A study published in 2002 found that beds of Posidonia oceanica in the Bay of Menton were not negatively affected eight years after colonization by C. taxifolia. [27] Other published studies have shown that fish diversity and biomass are equal or greater in Caulerpa meadows than in seagrass beds [28] and that Caulerpa had no effect on composition or richness of fish species. [29]
Studies in 1998 [15] and 2001 [23] found that the strain observed in the Mediterranean was genetically identical to aquarium strains, with similarities to an additional population in Australia.
A 2007 study found that a native bivalve mollusc species was negatively affected by the presence of C. taxifolia, but that the effect was not necessarily different from that of native seagrass species. [30] A 2010 study indicated that the effect of detritus from C. taxifolia negatively impacted abundance and species richness. [31]
C. taxifolia was found in waters near San Diego, California, in 2000, [32] where chlorine bleach was used in efforts to eradicate the strain. [33] The strain was declared eradicated from Agua Hedionda Lagoon in 2006. [34] California passed a law in 2001 forbidding the possession, sale, transport, or release of Caulerpa taxifolia within the state. [35] The Mediterranean clone of C. taxifolia was listed as a noxious weed in 1999 [36] by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, prohibiting interstate sale and transport of the strain without a permit under the Noxious Weed Act and Plant Protection Act. [24] [37]
C. taxifolia may become entangled in fishing gear and boat propellers. [4]
C. taxifolia may be controlled via mechanical removal, poisoning with chlorine, or application of salt. [6] Researchers at the University of Nice investigated possible use of a species of sea slug, Elysia subornata, as a possible natural control method, but found that it was not suitable for use in the Mediterranean due to cold winter water temperatures and insufficient population density. [38]