| Akure–Benin War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the expansion of the Kingdom of Benin | |||||||||
 Depiction of an Oba of Benin with Benin soldiers taken from Olfert Dapper's Description of Africa (1668) | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
Benin Kingdom |
Akure Kingdom | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Imaran, Imaran of Benin |
Arakale, Deji of Akure | ||||||||
| Benin wanted to reclaim the land and make Akure pay tribute, but Akure resisted. [1] | |||||||||
  Location within Nigeria | |||||||||
The Akure–Benin War in 1818 was a conflict between the Benin Kingdom and the Akure Kingdom in what is now Nigeria. The origins of this conflict can be traced to the complex history of the region, with Akure being a place of ancient settlements, some dating back to the early Ife kingdom. The Akure Kingdom emerged when these communities were consolidated under the rule of Prince Omoremilekun, who descended from Oduduwa, a revered figure in Yoruba history. Historically, the relationship between Benin and Akure had been marked by peace and mutual respect due to shared cultural heritage and ancestry.
However, this harmony was disrupted when Chief Osague, a Benin emissary, was killed by the Deji of Akure, Arakale. This incident, along with other conflicts and provocations, triggered the Benin invasion of Akure. The invasion involved military manoeuvres, with the Benin army led by Chief Erebo the Ezomo, General Ologbosere the Ologbosere, and the Imaran. They encountered resistance from the Akure army, led by the Deji himself. The Benin army strategically advanced through various routes, eventually capturing Akure after the destruction of the Deji's palace. This victory led to the establishment of Akure as a vassal state under Benin's control.
The consequences of the war were profound. For Akure, it marked a defeat, resulting in the loss of independence and submission to Benin's rule. The Deji of Akure had to pledge allegiance to the Oba of Benin, Osemwende, and pay tribute. In contrast, for Benin, the war demonstrated its power and expanded its territorial influence, with the Oba amassing greater wealth through tribute and plunder. The conflict had a lasting impact on the history and culture of both Akure and Benin, commemorated through various means, including oral traditions, festivals, monuments, and art.
Background
The Akure Kingdom, with its origins linked to the revered figure of Oduduwa, was established by Omoremilekun, a prince from Ile-Ife and a skilled elephant hunter. His journey led to the unification of various autonomous communities in the region, culminating in his crowning as the first Ajapada of Akure. The kingdom's early history was marked by resistance to centralised rule, similar to the early Ife kingdom, but Omoremilekun's leadership brought stability and unity, establishing a royal dynasty that would last for centuries. [2] [3]
Relations between the Akure Kingdom and the Benin Empire were historically peaceful, rooted in shared cultural heritage and common ancestry. Akure acknowledged the authority of the Oba of Benin, with tributes and reverence, while the Oba maintained friendly relations through envoys and gifts. This harmony was disrupted by an incident that led to the Akure–Benin War, highlighting the delicate balance of power and respect between the two kingdoms. [4] [5] [6]
Causes
The Akure–Benin War of 1818 erupted from a cascade of events that began with the assassination of a Benin diplomat and escalated with subsequent violent acts. Chief Osague, an esteemed member from the Iwebo Chancellery of the Benin Palace, was dispatched to Akure in 1818 with the Chalk of Good Tidings, signifying Oba Osemwende's ascension in 1816. The Deji of Akure, Arakale, envious of Chief Osague's attire, instigated a confrontation resulting in Osague's death. [7] [8]
Other accounts suggest Chief Osague's mission was punitive, tasked with disciplining Akure for appointing a Deji without Benin's consent. [9] Concurrently, a Benin merchant named Ogonto was assaulted in Akure's market, sparking riots that led to the death of several Bini individuals. [10] A similar event at Igbara-Odo resulted in the massacre of many Bini and the destruction of their property. [11]
Adorned in the regalia befitting a Benin chief, Chief Osague, accompanied by his entourage, presented the Chalk of Good Tidings to Arakale, who coveted Osague's coral bead regalia. [8] A dispute later arose in Akure between one of Chief Osague's wives and a local tobacco seller, a conflict Arakale had incited, which escalated into a brawl. [8] In the ensuing melee, as Chief Osague attempted to defend his wife, he was slain. Arakale then claimed Chief Osague's coral beads for himself. [8] The news of these events reached Benin City, reporting the murder of the Oba's emissary. [8] This incited Osemwende to declare a punitive expedition to avenge his emissary's death and subjugate Akure. [8] [12]
Course
The punitive expedition was orchestrated by a cadre of Benin's military elite, comprising three war commanders and two front commanders, each overseeing distinct contingents and strategic routes. [13] The esteemed positions of Ezomo, Ologbosere, and Imaran were held by Erebor, General Ologbosere, and a valiant warrior respectively, signifying their high military ranks within the Benin hierarchy. [14] [15] [16] Imadiyi and Oyodo, as front commanders, played pivotal roles in the campaign. [14]
As the Benin forces advanced, they encountered staunch resistance from the Akure army, led by the Deji himself. [17] The Benin commanders, employing strategic maneuvers through various routes, converged upon Akure. [18] Their military campaign was marked by attacks on Akure, Ilawe, and Igara-Odo, driving these regions northwards along with the towns of Ewi. [19] The success of the Benin military operation was attributed to a strategic encirclement, countering Akure's preparations for defense against any threats from Benin. [19]
The Benin military launched an assault and successfully captured the town. [20] The Deji of Akure, Arakale, was apprehended, executed, and his son, Adésọ́rọ̀ (Osupa), was taken prisoner to Benin. [21] This decisive action by the Benin forces quelled the rebellion in Akure. [22] They took numerous captives and seized cattle and valuables, imposing a heavy annual tribute on Akure, consisting of three slaves, as well as ivories and corals, all payable to the Oba of Benin. [23] [24] Consequently, Akure was relegated to a vassal state under Benin, marking a significant loss of its independence and stature. [25] [26]
Consequences
The aftermath of the conflict had profound and lasting effects on Akure and Benin. In Akure, the war culminated in a crushing defeat, stripping away its autonomy and prosperity. The town fell under Benin's dominion, leading to a period of subjugation and humiliation. [27] The Deji was coerced into swearing fealty to the Oba of Benin, committing to a regular tribute and acts of homage. [6]
For Benin, the war was a demonstration of its military might and reaffirmed its status as a formidable power. The Oba's influence extended over Akure and the surrounding territories, enhancing Benin's control over the region. [28] The Oba solidified his supremacy, amassing wealth and resources through the tributes and spoils collected from Akure. [29]
The victory in the war was bolstered by additional support from allied forces, including troops and supplies from the Ikerres in eastern Yorubaland and the Esan chiefdom of Irrua. [30] The Onojie of Uromi's assistance during the conflict was acknowledged by the Oba of Benin, who granted him the right to inherit the belongings of childless individuals in Uromi. [8] Following Akure's reconquest, the Benin army's leading commanders, Imadiyi and Oyodo, established a strategic base at Otun, facilitating further military operations in the Ekiti region and other eastern Yorubaland areas. [31] [29] Their conquests brought numerous towns and chiefdoms under Benin's sway, compelling Ekiti princes to acknowledge the Oba's imperial authority through annual tributes. [8]
Legacy
In 1834, years after the Akure conquest, the Oba of Benin released Adésọ́rọ̀, the son of Arakale, from captivity and was then appointed as the Deji of Akure. [31] He assumed the title of Osupa I (Osupa lati Ado wa) and was tasked with safeguarding Benin's interests in the Ekiti region. [31] Notably, a man named Orhuon (Orhuonkedo), (likely the king named "Osuon", in Akure history, said to be a brother of Osupa), who had proclaimed himself Deji of Akure, committed suicide upon learning of Osupa I's arrival with the Oba's messengers. [8]
The conflict left a lasting legacy in the history and culture of both Akure and Benin. It is a testament to its role in shaping their identity and destiny, commemorated through various means, including oral traditions, festivals, monuments, and art. [27] A cannonball at the Benin Museum which may have been used in the destruction of the Deji's palace is recorded by Jacob Egharevba. [32]
See also
References
Citations
- ^ Adeniran 1991, p. 83–95.
- ^ Owadasa 2019, p. 56.
- ^ Adepegba 1986, pp. 77–92.
- ^ Akintoye 1969, pp. 539–553 [544], "It seems possible that in the distant past, before the rise of Benin as a great kingdom, dynastic relationship between Akure and Benin resulted from their contacts.".
- ^ Usman & Falola 2019, p. 159-240.
- ^ a b Ogbeide 2018, p. 179, "With the success of the campaign, the Ekitis renewed their 'allegiance to the Oba of Benin and the payment of tribute was maintained until the British occupation in 1897.' There is evidence that the Deji of Akure played a crucial role for the Oba of Benin, in enforcing the payment of the tribute.".
- ^ Adegbulu 2010, p. 90, "Relations between Benin and Akure seem to have ebbed during the reign of Arakale (1769–1818) when a Benin ambassador called Osague was killed in Akure.".
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Egharevba 1968, p. 44.
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "At Akure, a chief (Chief Osagwe) sent to chastise the people for installing a Deji without first seeking the sanction of the Qba of Benin, was murdered...".
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "About the same time, an assault on a Benin trader named Ogonto in the Akure market led to violent disturbances in which a number of Edos were killed.".
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "At Igbara-Odo, an incident similar to the latter occurred, leading to the murder of many Edos and the burning of their belongings.".
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "These incidents led to the Benin invasions of the early nineteenth century in which guns were massively used.".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 178, "The Benin army was led by three top war commanders namely, the Ezomo, the Ologbosere and the Imaran, and two other Front Commanders – Imadiyi and Oyodo.".
- ^ a b Ogbeide 2018, p. 178.
- ^ McCall & Bay 1975, p. 176, "According to tradition, the ukhurhe was first used during the time of Ezomo (the highest ranking chief)".
- ^ Rotimi 2017, p. 420, "Ologbosere is one of the most powerful and influential chiefs in Ovonramwen Nogbaisi's cabinet".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 178, "Somehow, the war also turned out to be a punitive expedition to deal with the Deji of Akure who not only revolted against the Oba, but ordered the murder of chief Osague ...".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 200, "As Egharevba writes, the Ezomo went by way of Okearo, the Ologbosere by Okelisa and the Imaran by Isikan and Isinkin.".
- ^ a b Ogbeide 2018, p. 200.
- ^ Egharevba 1968, p. 44, "and the town was taken by assault.".
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "At Akure, the Deji was captured and beheaded and his son Osupa taken in captivity to Benin.".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 178, "The Benin soldiers successfully suppressed the Akure revolt.".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 132, "Slaves were among the tribute paid to the Oba of Benin.".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 27, "Benin a more vigorous state, and placed in the position of subduing her neighbours. The purchase of firearms initially depended on exchange for slaves, cloth and ivory.".
- ^ Adegbulu 2010, pp. 88, "Thus, at the inception of Akure as a vassal community, Benin elements were already trading in the area. ".
- ^ Adegbulu 2010, pp. 93, "Benin had had to suppress acts of rebellion from her vassals-Owo, Akure, Ipele, Ise, etc, on grounds of tribute payment, which Benin reacted to militarily.".
- ^ a b Usuanlele & Falola 1994, pp. 303–318.
- ^ Olugbadehan 2006, pp. 83.
- ^ a b Ogbeide 2018, p. 179.
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 179, "They were considered to have died in active service. Their success in the Akure War, however, was due to the support of additional contingents of soldiers and logistics from the Ikerres in eastern Yorubaland, and from Irrua – an Esan chiefdom.".
- ^ a b c Egharevba 1968, p. 45.
- ^ Roese & Smith 2000, pp. 75.
Bibliography
- Adegbulu, F (10 August 2010). "Edo N'ekue Phenomenon: A Study in Pre-colonial Benin Imperialism and its Impact on Akure, Ikere and other Communities". Lwati. 7 (2). doi: 10.4314/lwati.v7i2.57533. S2CID 144157865.
- Adepegba, Cornelius O. (1986). "The Descent from Oduduwa: Claims of Superiority among Some Yoruba Traditional Rulers and the Arts of Ancient Ife". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 19 (1). Boston University African Studies Center: 77–92. doi: 10.2307/218696. JSTOR 218696.
- Adeniran, Biodun (1991). Pleasant Imperialism: Conjectures on Benin Hegemony in Eastern Yorubaland. African Notes.
- Akintoye, S. A. (1969). "The North-Eastern Yoruba Districts and the Benin Kingdom". Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria. 4 (4). Historical Society of Nigeria: 539–553. ISSN 0018-2540. JSTOR 41856778. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
- Egharevba, J.U. (1968). A Short History of Benin. Ibadan University Press. ISBN 978-978-121-239-0. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
- McCall, D.F.; Bay, E.G. (1975). African Images: Essays in African Iconology. Africana Publishing Company, for the African Studies Center, Boston University. ISBN 978-0-8419-0147-6. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
- Ogbeide, Osamudiamen (2018). Military System of the Benin Kingdom (Ph.D. thesis). University of Ibadan.
- Olugbadehan, Oladipo Joseph (2006). Owo: A frontier Yoruba kingdom (Thesis). ProQuest 304913995.
- Owadasa, Martins (1 January 2019). "THE HISTORY OF PRE-COLONIAL OWO KINGDOM". African History. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
- Roese, Peter M.; Smith, Ronald B. (2000). "Cannon Known from the Former Kingdom of Benin (West Africa)". Annals of the Náprstek Museum. 21 (1). Prague: National Museum: 63–128. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
- Rotimi, O. (2017). Ovonramwen Nogbaisi: A Historical Play. Independently Published. ISBN 978-1-973404-93-4. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
- Usman, Aribidesi; Falola, Toyin (July 2019). The Yoruba from Prehistory to the Present. Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/9781107587656. ISBN 978-1-107-58765-6. S2CID 198760178.
- Usuanlele, Uyilawa; Falola, Toyin (1994). "The Scholarship of Jacob Egharevba of Benin". History in Africa. 21. Cambridge University Press: 303–318. doi: 10.2307/3171890. JSTOR 3171890. S2CID 161203337.
Further reading
- Austin, Gareth (2009). "Cash Crops and Freedom: Export Agriculture and the Decline of Slavery in Colonial West Africa". International Review of Social History. 54 (1). Cambridge University Press: 1–37. doi: 10.1017/S0020859009000017. ISSN 0020-8590. JSTOR 44583114. S2CID 54690984.
- Harvati, Katerina; Stringer, Chris; Grün, Rainer; Aubert, Maxime; Allsworth-Jones, Philip; Folorunso, Caleb Adebayo (15 September 2011). "The Later Stone Age Calvaria from Iwo Eleru, Nigeria: Morphology and Chronology". PLOS ONE. 6 (9). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e24024. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...624024H. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024024. PMC 3174138. PMID 21949689.
- Historical Society of Sierra Leone (1979). The Journal of the Historical Society of Sierra Leone. Historical Society of Sierra Leone. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
- Ryder, A. F. C. (1965). "A Reconsideration of the Ife-Benin Relationship". The Journal of African History. 6 (1). Cambridge University Press: 25–37. doi: 10.1017/S0021853700005314. JSTOR 179645. S2CID 161293672.
| Akure–Benin War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the expansion of the Kingdom of Benin | |||||||||
|
Depiction of an Oba of Benin with Benin soldiers taken from Olfert Dapper's Description of Africa (1668) | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
|
Benin Kingdom |
Akure Kingdom | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Imaran, Imaran of Benin |
Arakale, Deji of Akure | ||||||||
| Benin wanted to reclaim the land and make Akure pay tribute, but Akure resisted. [1] | |||||||||
Location within Nigeria | |||||||||
The Akure–Benin War in 1818 was a conflict between the Benin Kingdom and the Akure Kingdom in what is now Nigeria. The origins of this conflict can be traced to the complex history of the region, with Akure being a place of ancient settlements, some dating back to the early Ife kingdom. The Akure Kingdom emerged when these communities were consolidated under the rule of Prince Omoremilekun, who descended from Oduduwa, a revered figure in Yoruba history. Historically, the relationship between Benin and Akure had been marked by peace and mutual respect due to shared cultural heritage and ancestry.
However, this harmony was disrupted when Chief Osague, a Benin emissary, was killed by the Deji of Akure, Arakale. This incident, along with other conflicts and provocations, triggered the Benin invasion of Akure. The invasion involved military manoeuvres, with the Benin army led by Chief Erebo the Ezomo, General Ologbosere the Ologbosere, and the Imaran. They encountered resistance from the Akure army, led by the Deji himself. The Benin army strategically advanced through various routes, eventually capturing Akure after the destruction of the Deji's palace. This victory led to the establishment of Akure as a vassal state under Benin's control.
The consequences of the war were profound. For Akure, it marked a defeat, resulting in the loss of independence and submission to Benin's rule. The Deji of Akure had to pledge allegiance to the Oba of Benin, Osemwende, and pay tribute. In contrast, for Benin, the war demonstrated its power and expanded its territorial influence, with the Oba amassing greater wealth through tribute and plunder. The conflict had a lasting impact on the history and culture of both Akure and Benin, commemorated through various means, including oral traditions, festivals, monuments, and art.
Background
The Akure Kingdom, with its origins linked to the revered figure of Oduduwa, was established by Omoremilekun, a prince from Ile-Ife and a skilled elephant hunter. His journey led to the unification of various autonomous communities in the region, culminating in his crowning as the first Ajapada of Akure. The kingdom's early history was marked by resistance to centralised rule, similar to the early Ife kingdom, but Omoremilekun's leadership brought stability and unity, establishing a royal dynasty that would last for centuries. [2] [3]
Relations between the Akure Kingdom and the Benin Empire were historically peaceful, rooted in shared cultural heritage and common ancestry. Akure acknowledged the authority of the Oba of Benin, with tributes and reverence, while the Oba maintained friendly relations through envoys and gifts. This harmony was disrupted by an incident that led to the Akure–Benin War, highlighting the delicate balance of power and respect between the two kingdoms. [4] [5] [6]
Causes
The Akure–Benin War of 1818 erupted from a cascade of events that began with the assassination of a Benin diplomat and escalated with subsequent violent acts. Chief Osague, an esteemed member from the Iwebo Chancellery of the Benin Palace, was dispatched to Akure in 1818 with the Chalk of Good Tidings, signifying Oba Osemwende's ascension in 1816. The Deji of Akure, Arakale, envious of Chief Osague's attire, instigated a confrontation resulting in Osague's death. [7] [8]
Other accounts suggest Chief Osague's mission was punitive, tasked with disciplining Akure for appointing a Deji without Benin's consent. [9] Concurrently, a Benin merchant named Ogonto was assaulted in Akure's market, sparking riots that led to the death of several Bini individuals. [10] A similar event at Igbara-Odo resulted in the massacre of many Bini and the destruction of their property. [11]
Adorned in the regalia befitting a Benin chief, Chief Osague, accompanied by his entourage, presented the Chalk of Good Tidings to Arakale, who coveted Osague's coral bead regalia. [8] A dispute later arose in Akure between one of Chief Osague's wives and a local tobacco seller, a conflict Arakale had incited, which escalated into a brawl. [8] In the ensuing melee, as Chief Osague attempted to defend his wife, he was slain. Arakale then claimed Chief Osague's coral beads for himself. [8] The news of these events reached Benin City, reporting the murder of the Oba's emissary. [8] This incited Osemwende to declare a punitive expedition to avenge his emissary's death and subjugate Akure. [8] [12]
Course
The punitive expedition was orchestrated by a cadre of Benin's military elite, comprising three war commanders and two front commanders, each overseeing distinct contingents and strategic routes. [13] The esteemed positions of Ezomo, Ologbosere, and Imaran were held by Erebor, General Ologbosere, and a valiant warrior respectively, signifying their high military ranks within the Benin hierarchy. [14] [15] [16] Imadiyi and Oyodo, as front commanders, played pivotal roles in the campaign. [14]
As the Benin forces advanced, they encountered staunch resistance from the Akure army, led by the Deji himself. [17] The Benin commanders, employing strategic maneuvers through various routes, converged upon Akure. [18] Their military campaign was marked by attacks on Akure, Ilawe, and Igara-Odo, driving these regions northwards along with the towns of Ewi. [19] The success of the Benin military operation was attributed to a strategic encirclement, countering Akure's preparations for defense against any threats from Benin. [19]
The Benin military launched an assault and successfully captured the town. [20] The Deji of Akure, Arakale, was apprehended, executed, and his son, Adésọ́rọ̀ (Osupa), was taken prisoner to Benin. [21] This decisive action by the Benin forces quelled the rebellion in Akure. [22] They took numerous captives and seized cattle and valuables, imposing a heavy annual tribute on Akure, consisting of three slaves, as well as ivories and corals, all payable to the Oba of Benin. [23] [24] Consequently, Akure was relegated to a vassal state under Benin, marking a significant loss of its independence and stature. [25] [26]
Consequences
The aftermath of the conflict had profound and lasting effects on Akure and Benin. In Akure, the war culminated in a crushing defeat, stripping away its autonomy and prosperity. The town fell under Benin's dominion, leading to a period of subjugation and humiliation. [27] The Deji was coerced into swearing fealty to the Oba of Benin, committing to a regular tribute and acts of homage. [6]
For Benin, the war was a demonstration of its military might and reaffirmed its status as a formidable power. The Oba's influence extended over Akure and the surrounding territories, enhancing Benin's control over the region. [28] The Oba solidified his supremacy, amassing wealth and resources through the tributes and spoils collected from Akure. [29]
The victory in the war was bolstered by additional support from allied forces, including troops and supplies from the Ikerres in eastern Yorubaland and the Esan chiefdom of Irrua. [30] The Onojie of Uromi's assistance during the conflict was acknowledged by the Oba of Benin, who granted him the right to inherit the belongings of childless individuals in Uromi. [8] Following Akure's reconquest, the Benin army's leading commanders, Imadiyi and Oyodo, established a strategic base at Otun, facilitating further military operations in the Ekiti region and other eastern Yorubaland areas. [31] [29] Their conquests brought numerous towns and chiefdoms under Benin's sway, compelling Ekiti princes to acknowledge the Oba's imperial authority through annual tributes. [8]
Legacy
In 1834, years after the Akure conquest, the Oba of Benin released Adésọ́rọ̀, the son of Arakale, from captivity and was then appointed as the Deji of Akure. [31] He assumed the title of Osupa I (Osupa lati Ado wa) and was tasked with safeguarding Benin's interests in the Ekiti region. [31] Notably, a man named Orhuon (Orhuonkedo), (likely the king named "Osuon", in Akure history, said to be a brother of Osupa), who had proclaimed himself Deji of Akure, committed suicide upon learning of Osupa I's arrival with the Oba's messengers. [8]
The conflict left a lasting legacy in the history and culture of both Akure and Benin. It is a testament to its role in shaping their identity and destiny, commemorated through various means, including oral traditions, festivals, monuments, and art. [27] A cannonball at the Benin Museum which may have been used in the destruction of the Deji's palace is recorded by Jacob Egharevba. [32]
See also
References
Citations
- ^ Adeniran 1991, p. 83–95.
- ^ Owadasa 2019, p. 56.
- ^ Adepegba 1986, pp. 77–92.
- ^ Akintoye 1969, pp. 539–553 [544], "It seems possible that in the distant past, before the rise of Benin as a great kingdom, dynastic relationship between Akure and Benin resulted from their contacts.".
- ^ Usman & Falola 2019, p. 159-240.
- ^ a b Ogbeide 2018, p. 179, "With the success of the campaign, the Ekitis renewed their 'allegiance to the Oba of Benin and the payment of tribute was maintained until the British occupation in 1897.' There is evidence that the Deji of Akure played a crucial role for the Oba of Benin, in enforcing the payment of the tribute.".
- ^ Adegbulu 2010, p. 90, "Relations between Benin and Akure seem to have ebbed during the reign of Arakale (1769–1818) when a Benin ambassador called Osague was killed in Akure.".
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Egharevba 1968, p. 44.
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "At Akure, a chief (Chief Osagwe) sent to chastise the people for installing a Deji without first seeking the sanction of the Qba of Benin, was murdered...".
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "About the same time, an assault on a Benin trader named Ogonto in the Akure market led to violent disturbances in which a number of Edos were killed.".
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "At Igbara-Odo, an incident similar to the latter occurred, leading to the murder of many Edos and the burning of their belongings.".
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "These incidents led to the Benin invasions of the early nineteenth century in which guns were massively used.".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 178, "The Benin army was led by three top war commanders namely, the Ezomo, the Ologbosere and the Imaran, and two other Front Commanders – Imadiyi and Oyodo.".
- ^ a b Ogbeide 2018, p. 178.
- ^ McCall & Bay 1975, p. 176, "According to tradition, the ukhurhe was first used during the time of Ezomo (the highest ranking chief)".
- ^ Rotimi 2017, p. 420, "Ologbosere is one of the most powerful and influential chiefs in Ovonramwen Nogbaisi's cabinet".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 178, "Somehow, the war also turned out to be a punitive expedition to deal with the Deji of Akure who not only revolted against the Oba, but ordered the murder of chief Osague ...".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 200, "As Egharevba writes, the Ezomo went by way of Okearo, the Ologbosere by Okelisa and the Imaran by Isikan and Isinkin.".
- ^ a b Ogbeide 2018, p. 200.
- ^ Egharevba 1968, p. 44, "and the town was taken by assault.".
- ^ Akintoye 1969, p. 552, "At Akure, the Deji was captured and beheaded and his son Osupa taken in captivity to Benin.".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 178, "The Benin soldiers successfully suppressed the Akure revolt.".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 132, "Slaves were among the tribute paid to the Oba of Benin.".
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 27, "Benin a more vigorous state, and placed in the position of subduing her neighbours. The purchase of firearms initially depended on exchange for slaves, cloth and ivory.".
- ^ Adegbulu 2010, pp. 88, "Thus, at the inception of Akure as a vassal community, Benin elements were already trading in the area. ".
- ^ Adegbulu 2010, pp. 93, "Benin had had to suppress acts of rebellion from her vassals-Owo, Akure, Ipele, Ise, etc, on grounds of tribute payment, which Benin reacted to militarily.".
- ^ a b Usuanlele & Falola 1994, pp. 303–318.
- ^ Olugbadehan 2006, pp. 83.
- ^ a b Ogbeide 2018, p. 179.
- ^ Ogbeide 2018, p. 179, "They were considered to have died in active service. Their success in the Akure War, however, was due to the support of additional contingents of soldiers and logistics from the Ikerres in eastern Yorubaland, and from Irrua – an Esan chiefdom.".
- ^ a b c Egharevba 1968, p. 45.
- ^ Roese & Smith 2000, pp. 75.
Bibliography
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Further reading
- Austin, Gareth (2009). "Cash Crops and Freedom: Export Agriculture and the Decline of Slavery in Colonial West Africa". International Review of Social History. 54 (1). Cambridge University Press: 1–37. doi: 10.1017/S0020859009000017. ISSN 0020-8590. JSTOR 44583114. S2CID 54690984.
- Harvati, Katerina; Stringer, Chris; Grün, Rainer; Aubert, Maxime; Allsworth-Jones, Philip; Folorunso, Caleb Adebayo (15 September 2011). "The Later Stone Age Calvaria from Iwo Eleru, Nigeria: Morphology and Chronology". PLOS ONE. 6 (9). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e24024. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...624024H. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024024. PMC 3174138. PMID 21949689.
- Historical Society of Sierra Leone (1979). The Journal of the Historical Society of Sierra Leone. Historical Society of Sierra Leone. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
- Ryder, A. F. C. (1965). "A Reconsideration of the Ife-Benin Relationship". The Journal of African History. 6 (1). Cambridge University Press: 25–37. doi: 10.1017/S0021853700005314. JSTOR 179645. S2CID 161293672.