The
Mamertines, a body of
Campanian mercenaries who have been employed by
Agathocles, the former tyrant of
Syracuse, capture the stronghold of
Messana (
Messina in north-eastern
Sicily), from which they harass the Syracusans. The Syracusan military leader,
Hieron, defeats them in a pitched battle at the
Longanus River near
Mylae, but
Carthaginian forces intervene to prevent him from capturing Messana. His grateful countrymen then choose Hieron as their king and tyrant, to be known as Hieron II.
Chremonides, an
Athenian statesman and general, issues the Decree of Chremonides, creating an alliance between
Sparta, Athens, and
Ptolemy II of
Egypt. The origins of this alliance lay in the continuing desire of many Greek states, notably Athens and Sparta, for a restoration of their former independence, along with the desire of Ptolemy II to create troubles for his rival
Antigonus II, King of
Macedonia. Ptolemy II's ambitions in the
Aegean Sea are threatened by Antigonus Gonatas' fleet, so he carefully builds up a coalition of the rest of the Greeks against Macedonians. He especially cultivates Athens by supplying the city with grain.
Hiero II threatens to renew his attack on the
Mamertines. They appeal to
Carthage and receive the support of a Carthaginian garrison. The Mamertines also appeal to the
Romans who are also willing to help.
Abantidas, the son of
Paseas, becomes
tyrant of the Greek city-state of
Sicyon after murdering Cleinias. He either banishes or puts to death Cleinias' friends and relations. Cleinias' young son,
Aratus, narrowly escapes death.
Roman Republic
Start of war between the Romans and the Carthaginians-
First Punic War[2]
The
tyrant of
Syracuse,
Hiero II, once more attacks the
Mamertines. They ally themselves with a nearby Carthaginian fleet and hold off the Syracusans. However, when the Carthaginians do not leave, the Mamertines appeal to Rome for an alliance, hoping for more reliable protection. Although initially reluctant to assist, lest it encourage other mercenary groups to mutiny, Rome is unwilling to see Carthaginian power spread further over
Sicily and encroach on
Italy. Rome therefore enters into an alliance with the Mamertines. By this action, the
First Punic War begins and will embroil
Rome in a conflict with
Carthage that will continue for 23 years.
The Roman
consulAppius Claudius Caudex and his two legions are deployed to Sicily, the first time a Roman army has gone into action outside the Italian peninsula.
Appius Claudius Caudex leads his forces to
Messina, and as the Mamertines have convinced the Carthaginians to withdraw, he meets with only minimal resistance. The Mamertines hand the city over to Appius Claudius, but the Carthaginians return to set up a blockade. The Syracusans, meanwhile, are also stationed outside the city.
Appius Claudius leads his troops outside the city of Messina to defeat the Syracusans in battle forcing Hiero to retreat back to Syracuse. The next day Claudius defeats the Carthaginians.
Three pairs of
gladiators face off in the first recorded gladiatorial combat, held at the funeral games in honour of aristocrat Junius Brutus Pera in the Forum Boarium.
China
General
Bai Qi of the
State of Qin attacks the
State of Han and captures the city of Jing, defeating its large garrison. He then captures various other towns and cities.[3]
The
Confucian philosopher
Xunzi visits the State of Qin. He writes of his and others' admiration for the government officials of Qin, whom he says are serious and sincere, free from the tendency to form cliques. The Qin officials are disciplined by a
meritocracy of rather harsh methods imposed by the
Legalist philosophy.
The Romans capture
Catania in Sicily under Messalla. A sundial is part of the booty, which is placed in the
Comitium in Rome and will be significant in
Roman timekeeping.[4]
The
Athenians and
Spartans, worn down by several years of war and the devastation of their lands, make peace with Antigonus II of Macedonia who thus retains his hold on southern Greece.
Eumenes I succeeds his uncle
Philetaerus on the throne of
Pergamum. As Philetaerus is a eunuch, he adopts his nephew Eumenes (the son of Philetaerus' brother also named Eumenes) as his successor.
China
General
Bai Qi of the
State of Qin captures the
Han province of Nan, thereby cutting off
Shangdang Commandery from the rest of the Han state. This commandery subsequently surrenders itself to the
State of Zhao rather than transfer to Qin control, which will set up the climactic
Battle of Changping in 260 BC.[5]
After
Athens surrenders in the
Chremonidean War following a long siege by
Macedonian forces,
Antigonus II Gonatas re-garrisons Athens and forbids the city from making war. Otherwise, he leaves Athens alone as the seat of philosophy and learning in Greece. [6]
Roman Republic
Rome besieges the city of
Agrigentum which is held by
Carthage under the command of
Hannibal Gisco. Rome's siege involves both consular armies – a total of four Roman legions – and takes several months to resolve. The garrison of Agrigentum manages to call for reinforcements and a Carthaginian relief force commanded by
Hanno comes to the rescue and destroys the Roman supply base at Erbessus. Nevertheless, after a few skirmishes, the
battle of Agrigentum is fought and won by Rome, and the city falls. Gisco manages to escape to Carthage in the late stages of the battle.
After the loss of Agrigentum, the Carthaginians retire to organise their fleet. In the meantime, the Romans sack Agrigentum and enslave its Greek inhabitants. The Romans are now determined to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily.
Seleucid Empire
Seleucid king
Antiochus I's eldest son Seleucus, who has ruled in the east of the kingdom as viceroy for a number of years, is put to death by his father on the charge of rebellion.
Antiochus I tries to break the growing power of
Pergamum by force of arms.
Eumenes I, the new ruler of Pergamum, liberates his city from the overlordship of the Seleucids by defeating the army of Antiochus I near
Sardis (the capital of
Lydia), and thereby establishing an independent city-state.
The armies of the
State of Qin and
State of Zhao contest control of the area around
Changping. After suffering defeats to general Wang He of Qin and the superior Qin army, general
Lian Po of Zhao refuses to give battle, resulting in a stalemate.[7]
The
Roman advance continues westward from
Agrigentum with their forces relieving the besieged cities of
Segesta and Macella. These cities have sided with the Roman cause, and have come under
Carthaginian attack for doing so.
Hannibal Gisco returns to fight in
Sicily as the admiral in charge of the Carthaginian fleet in the
Strait of Messina. With the Romans about to launch their first ever navy, Carthage is determined that this innovation be thwarted. Gisco defeats part of the Roman fleet and captures the Roman
consulGnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina in an encounter near
Lipari; the consul's nickname Asina (which means donkey) is earned in this encounter. However, this Carthaginian victory is of limited practical value as the bulk of the Roman fleet continues to manoeuvre in the surrounding waters.
Confident in Carthage's superiority at sea, Hannibal Gisco deploys his ships for the
Battle of Mylae in the traditional long line arrangement. Although inexperienced in sea battles, the Romans, led by consul
Gaius Duilius Nepos, heavily defeat the Carthaginian fleet, mainly due to the innovative use of land tactics in naval warfare (including the use of the grappling irons and the
corvus boarding bridge).
Having lost the confidence of his peers, Hannibal Gisco is subsequently executed for incompetence shortly afterwards, together with other defeated Punic generals.
In the north of Sicily, the Romans, with their northern sea flank secured by their naval victory in the Battle of Mylae, advance toward Thermae. They are defeated there by the Carthaginians under
Hamilcar.
Frustrated with the stalemate and encouraged by Qin spies,
King Xiaocheng of Zhao replaces general
Lian Po with the less cautious
Zhao Kuo. Hearing of this, King
Zhaoxiang of Qin secretly sends the famous general
Bai Qi to take control of the Qin army.
The Qin army under Bai Qi destroys the army of Zhao, establishing Qin's military superiority over all other
Chinese states during the
Warring States period. The battle takes place near modern-day
Gaoping in
Shanxi and hundreds of thousands of soldiers from Zhao are executed after the battle.[8]
Apollonius of Perga (Pergaeus), Greek astronomer and mathematician specialising in geometry and noted for his writings on conic sections (d. c.
190 BC)
The
Mamertines, a body of
Campanian mercenaries who have been employed by
Agathocles, the former tyrant of
Syracuse, capture the stronghold of
Messana (
Messina in north-eastern
Sicily), from which they harass the Syracusans. The Syracusan military leader,
Hieron, defeats them in a pitched battle at the
Longanus River near
Mylae, but
Carthaginian forces intervene to prevent him from capturing Messana. His grateful countrymen then choose Hieron as their king and tyrant, to be known as Hieron II.
Chremonides, an
Athenian statesman and general, issues the Decree of Chremonides, creating an alliance between
Sparta, Athens, and
Ptolemy II of
Egypt. The origins of this alliance lay in the continuing desire of many Greek states, notably Athens and Sparta, for a restoration of their former independence, along with the desire of Ptolemy II to create troubles for his rival
Antigonus II, King of
Macedonia. Ptolemy II's ambitions in the
Aegean Sea are threatened by Antigonus Gonatas' fleet, so he carefully builds up a coalition of the rest of the Greeks against Macedonians. He especially cultivates Athens by supplying the city with grain.
Hiero II threatens to renew his attack on the
Mamertines. They appeal to
Carthage and receive the support of a Carthaginian garrison. The Mamertines also appeal to the
Romans who are also willing to help.
Abantidas, the son of
Paseas, becomes
tyrant of the Greek city-state of
Sicyon after murdering Cleinias. He either banishes or puts to death Cleinias' friends and relations. Cleinias' young son,
Aratus, narrowly escapes death.
Roman Republic
Start of war between the Romans and the Carthaginians-
First Punic War[2]
The
tyrant of
Syracuse,
Hiero II, once more attacks the
Mamertines. They ally themselves with a nearby Carthaginian fleet and hold off the Syracusans. However, when the Carthaginians do not leave, the Mamertines appeal to Rome for an alliance, hoping for more reliable protection. Although initially reluctant to assist, lest it encourage other mercenary groups to mutiny, Rome is unwilling to see Carthaginian power spread further over
Sicily and encroach on
Italy. Rome therefore enters into an alliance with the Mamertines. By this action, the
First Punic War begins and will embroil
Rome in a conflict with
Carthage that will continue for 23 years.
The Roman
consulAppius Claudius Caudex and his two legions are deployed to Sicily, the first time a Roman army has gone into action outside the Italian peninsula.
Appius Claudius Caudex leads his forces to
Messina, and as the Mamertines have convinced the Carthaginians to withdraw, he meets with only minimal resistance. The Mamertines hand the city over to Appius Claudius, but the Carthaginians return to set up a blockade. The Syracusans, meanwhile, are also stationed outside the city.
Appius Claudius leads his troops outside the city of Messina to defeat the Syracusans in battle forcing Hiero to retreat back to Syracuse. The next day Claudius defeats the Carthaginians.
Three pairs of
gladiators face off in the first recorded gladiatorial combat, held at the funeral games in honour of aristocrat Junius Brutus Pera in the Forum Boarium.
China
General
Bai Qi of the
State of Qin attacks the
State of Han and captures the city of Jing, defeating its large garrison. He then captures various other towns and cities.[3]
The
Confucian philosopher
Xunzi visits the State of Qin. He writes of his and others' admiration for the government officials of Qin, whom he says are serious and sincere, free from the tendency to form cliques. The Qin officials are disciplined by a
meritocracy of rather harsh methods imposed by the
Legalist philosophy.
The Romans capture
Catania in Sicily under Messalla. A sundial is part of the booty, which is placed in the
Comitium in Rome and will be significant in
Roman timekeeping.[4]
The
Athenians and
Spartans, worn down by several years of war and the devastation of their lands, make peace with Antigonus II of Macedonia who thus retains his hold on southern Greece.
Eumenes I succeeds his uncle
Philetaerus on the throne of
Pergamum. As Philetaerus is a eunuch, he adopts his nephew Eumenes (the son of Philetaerus' brother also named Eumenes) as his successor.
China
General
Bai Qi of the
State of Qin captures the
Han province of Nan, thereby cutting off
Shangdang Commandery from the rest of the Han state. This commandery subsequently surrenders itself to the
State of Zhao rather than transfer to Qin control, which will set up the climactic
Battle of Changping in 260 BC.[5]
After
Athens surrenders in the
Chremonidean War following a long siege by
Macedonian forces,
Antigonus II Gonatas re-garrisons Athens and forbids the city from making war. Otherwise, he leaves Athens alone as the seat of philosophy and learning in Greece. [6]
Roman Republic
Rome besieges the city of
Agrigentum which is held by
Carthage under the command of
Hannibal Gisco. Rome's siege involves both consular armies – a total of four Roman legions – and takes several months to resolve. The garrison of Agrigentum manages to call for reinforcements and a Carthaginian relief force commanded by
Hanno comes to the rescue and destroys the Roman supply base at Erbessus. Nevertheless, after a few skirmishes, the
battle of Agrigentum is fought and won by Rome, and the city falls. Gisco manages to escape to Carthage in the late stages of the battle.
After the loss of Agrigentum, the Carthaginians retire to organise their fleet. In the meantime, the Romans sack Agrigentum and enslave its Greek inhabitants. The Romans are now determined to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily.
Seleucid Empire
Seleucid king
Antiochus I's eldest son Seleucus, who has ruled in the east of the kingdom as viceroy for a number of years, is put to death by his father on the charge of rebellion.
Antiochus I tries to break the growing power of
Pergamum by force of arms.
Eumenes I, the new ruler of Pergamum, liberates his city from the overlordship of the Seleucids by defeating the army of Antiochus I near
Sardis (the capital of
Lydia), and thereby establishing an independent city-state.
The armies of the
State of Qin and
State of Zhao contest control of the area around
Changping. After suffering defeats to general Wang He of Qin and the superior Qin army, general
Lian Po of Zhao refuses to give battle, resulting in a stalemate.[7]
The
Roman advance continues westward from
Agrigentum with their forces relieving the besieged cities of
Segesta and Macella. These cities have sided with the Roman cause, and have come under
Carthaginian attack for doing so.
Hannibal Gisco returns to fight in
Sicily as the admiral in charge of the Carthaginian fleet in the
Strait of Messina. With the Romans about to launch their first ever navy, Carthage is determined that this innovation be thwarted. Gisco defeats part of the Roman fleet and captures the Roman
consulGnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina in an encounter near
Lipari; the consul's nickname Asina (which means donkey) is earned in this encounter. However, this Carthaginian victory is of limited practical value as the bulk of the Roman fleet continues to manoeuvre in the surrounding waters.
Confident in Carthage's superiority at sea, Hannibal Gisco deploys his ships for the
Battle of Mylae in the traditional long line arrangement. Although inexperienced in sea battles, the Romans, led by consul
Gaius Duilius Nepos, heavily defeat the Carthaginian fleet, mainly due to the innovative use of land tactics in naval warfare (including the use of the grappling irons and the
corvus boarding bridge).
Having lost the confidence of his peers, Hannibal Gisco is subsequently executed for incompetence shortly afterwards, together with other defeated Punic generals.
In the north of Sicily, the Romans, with their northern sea flank secured by their naval victory in the Battle of Mylae, advance toward Thermae. They are defeated there by the Carthaginians under
Hamilcar.
Frustrated with the stalemate and encouraged by Qin spies,
King Xiaocheng of Zhao replaces general
Lian Po with the less cautious
Zhao Kuo. Hearing of this, King
Zhaoxiang of Qin secretly sends the famous general
Bai Qi to take control of the Qin army.
The Qin army under Bai Qi destroys the army of Zhao, establishing Qin's military superiority over all other
Chinese states during the
Warring States period. The battle takes place near modern-day
Gaoping in
Shanxi and hundreds of thousands of soldiers from Zhao are executed after the battle.[8]
Apollonius of Perga (Pergaeus), Greek astronomer and mathematician specialising in geometry and noted for his writings on conic sections (d. c.
190 BC)