This is a list of European species extinct in the Holocene that covers
extinctions from the
Holocene epoch, a
geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years
before present (about 9700
BCE)[A] and continues to the present day.[1]
Most recent remains dated to 3040-1840 BCE. A painting on the
Ancient Egyptian tomb of
Rekhmire (1470-1445 BCE) depicting exotic animals brought to Egypt as tribute by foreign peoples, has been interpreted by some authors as a depiction of a dwarf elephant.[4]
Most recent remains dated to 348 BCE - 283 CE.[9] Though hunted by the original human inhabitants of the islands, it likely became extinct due to
Roman agricultural practices, the introduction of predators (
dogs,
cats, and small
mustelids) and ecological competitors (
rodents,
rabbits, and
hares).[10] Transmission of
pathogens by rabbits and hares could have been another factor.[11] Survival into
modern history, even as late as 1774 on the smaller island of
Tavolara, has been hypothesised from the description of unknown mammals by later Sardinian authors; however, this interpretation remains dubious owing to anatomical discrepancies.[12]
Most recent remains dated to 9650 BCE in the
Ponto-Caspian region, 9550 BCE in
Boreal Europe, 9450 BCE in the
British Isles, 8850 BCE in
Northwestern Germany, 8750 BCE in northern Central Europe, 6050 BCE[2] in the
Carpathian Basin, the Middle Holocene in the Middle Urals,[13] and 1220 BCE in the Southern Urals.[2] This species avoids human disturbance strictly and is considered an excellent indicator of the health of
steppe ecosystems, as a result.[14]
Most recent remains dated to 9650 BCE in the Ponto-Caspian Region, 9550 BCE in Boreal Europe, 8750 BCE in northern Central Europe, 8250 BCE in the
Franco-Cantabrian region, 6050 BCE in Northwestern Germany, 5850 BCE[2] in the Carpathian Basin, and Late Holocene in the Urals.[14]
Most recent remains at
Mochlos dated to the
Bronze Age. It was outcompeted and replaced by the
house mouse accidentally introduced by sailors from the eastern Mediterranean.[15]
Most recent remains at
Escorca, Mallorca dated to 4840-4690 BCE, coinding with the period of initial human settlement in the island. It could have succumbed to diseases carried by introduced
commensal mammals.[17]
Most recent remains at
Alcúdia dated to 3030-2690 BCE, coinding with the period of initial human settlement in the island. It could have succumbed to diseases carried by introduced commensal mammals.[17]
Most recent remains in the Franco-Cantabrian region dated to 9350 BCE.[2] Other lion remains from Italy and northern Spain could indicate that a small form survived in mountain areas until the
Preboreal and
Boreal, respectively.[20]
Remains were found in
Shengavit and
Urartu, Armenia dating to the
4th-
3rd millennium BCE. It is also depicted in
rock art of the 4th-
1st millennium BCE, where it can be differenciated from the leopard by the shape of its paws and unretracted claws. Possibly survived in Armenia until the
Middle Ages before disappearing due to
hunting.[21]
According to the alternate hypothesis, the modern lion expanded into southern Europe and replaced the cave lion there already in the
Late Glacial, surviving in Italy and northern Spain until the Preboreal or Boreal.[20] A possible second colonization event took place in the
Balkans during the
Atlantic and Subboreal periods, reaching as far as
Hungary, southwestern
Ukraine, and Greece. In the
Iron Age the lion strongly declined until it disappeared from these regions, possibly because of hunting and
habitat loss caused by increasing human population and
livestock rearing.[22] In 370 CE the
Greco-Roman orator
Themistius mentioned that lions had disappeared from
Thessaly, their last Balkan stronghold.[C] Lions were also hunted historically across
Transcaucasia, and were reportedly common in the
ungulate-rich
Kura-Araz and
Mughan plains, up to the
Absheron Peninsula, until 900 CE.[24]
A cold-adapted subspecies of the leopard, Panthera pardus spelaea, was widespread in Europe during the Pleniglacial and Late Glacial.[25] A 8850 BCE record from the Franco-Cantabrian region,[2] another from the Preboreal or Boreal of Greece, and two from the Sub-Atlantic of western and southern Ukraine could indicate that leopards survived or recolonized the continent in the Holocene. However, later remains from
Hellenistic and
Roman sites are confidently attributed to imports from Asia and Africa.[22]
In the Caucasus, the leopard was hunted to extinction from most of the region by the 1950s or 1960s,[26] but still survives in small areas of the
North Caucasus, southern Armenia, and Azerbaijan.[27] These leopards belong to the Persian subspecies Panthera pardus tulliana, which also occurs in
Anatolia.[28] In 1889 an Anatolian leopard was killed in the Greek island of
Samos after swimming from Asia. Local
folklore suggests that similar events have happened in the island at different times in history.[29]
Present permanently in the Caucasus region and along the
Caspian and eastern
Azov coasts, the
Terek and
Kuban rivers, and the
estuary of the
Don river during the 10th-12th centuries CE, with
vagrants recorded as far as
Chernihiv, Ukraine.[26] Last recorded in
Mingrelia and
Imeretia at the beginning of the 17th century, Armenia in the early 19th century, eastern Georgia in 1936,[24] and Azerbaijan's
Talysh Mountains in 1966. Last three were all vagrants intruding after tigers stopped breeding in the respective area.[26]
Exterminated by livestock farmers. The last confirmed individual was killed in 1924 near Bellolampo; unconfirmed killings near
Palermo were reported between 1935 and 1938, and unconfirmed sightings between 1960 and 1970.[30]
Most recent remains dated to 7050-6550 BCE in Riparo Fredian, Italy (with doubts)[31] and Les Coves de Santa Maira, Spain.[32] Claims of 21st century presence of dhole in the Caucasus are erroneous.[33]
Most recent remains in Corsica dated to 9910-9710 BCE and Sardinia to 9531-9196 BCE, roughly coinciding with modern human colonization of the islands.[34]
Martens, polecats, otters, badgers, and weasels (family
Mustelidae)
Known from a single skeleton found in a cave with no
stratigraphical context but estimated to be Late Pleistocene or early Holocene,[35] 68050-8050 BCE.[36]
Western Europe to western Siberia,[37] Anatolia?[38]
Historical sources record
wild horses living until the 12th century in
Denmark, 13th in Germany,[39] 14th in
Portugal, 16th in Spain,[40] the
Vosges,
East Prussia, and
Lithuania; 18th in the northern
Carpathians[39] and southern Urals,[41] and 19th in
Poland and Ukraine.[42] The last in the wild was killed in
Askania-Nova in 1879, and the last in captivity died in the
Moscow Zoo in 1887.[39] Some sources treat them as wild, untameable animals of different nature to horses, and others as
feral horses or
hybrids, casting doubt on the moment when pure wild horses became extinct in the continent. Despite this, the
IUCN considers the subspecies E. f. ferus valid. The
Tatar-
Cossack word tarpan became a popular name for European wild horses in the 19th century, though it is sometimes limited to horses from central and eastern Europe.[42]
Paleogenomics suggest that
horses were domesticated independently in the
Ponto-Caspian steppe and expanded to the rest of Europe by the Bronze Age. Early
nomadic pastoralists likely released their horses to graze freely at night, resulting in feral populations and hybridization with wild horses. Wild mares were also captured to replenish domestic herds, breaking down the social order of wild herds and diminishing their reproduction. Around 600-1100 CE, the originally high genetic diversity of domestic horses descended to modern levels.[42] In historical times European wild horses were hunted for their meat, hide,
traditional medicine, sport, and to protect crops and livestock
hay deposits during the winter.[40][39] Several horse breeds have been claimed to have recent tarpan ancestry including the
Konik,
Sorraia,
Exmoor pony,
Hucul pony,
Bosnian Mountain Horse,
Estonian Native, and
Gotland pony. However, genetic and historical evidence indicate that they are typical domestic horses.[42]
Remains dated to 8050 BCE in Western Europe, 3550 BCE in Italy,[2] 3300-2700 BCE in
Karanovo, Bulgaria; 3200-2500 BCE in
Los Millares, Spain; 2050 BCE in southern
Central Europe,[2] and 1500-500 BCE in
Keti, Armenia. Questionable remains in Didi-gora, Georgia dated to 1075 BCE. The hydruntine inhabited open steppe habitat that became rarer and fragmented in the Holocene, making it more vulnerable to human exploitation.[43]
Probably present in the deserts between the
Volga and
Ural rivers until the 18th or 19th century, when it was extirpated due to increasing hunting with firearms and seizure of waterholes for livestock use. 18th century records from
Voronezh, Russia are considered unreliable.[45] It was first reintroduced to Askania-Nova, Ukraine in 1950.[46] In 2020
Rewilding Europe released kulan in the
Tarutyne steppe next to the
Danube Delta.[47] It has also announced plans to release kulan in Spain as proxy for the hydruntine.[48]
Possibly calved in the Mediterranean in ancient times.[49] All few confirmed individuals in Europe since 1999 were identified as vagrants from the North American population, and known calving areas in Africa appear to be depleted.[50]
Most recent remains at
Ijmuiden, Netherlands were dated to 550 CE.[52] A vagrant from the Pacific population dispersed over the
Arctic Ocean and was seen in Europe in 2010.[53][54]
North Caucasus and the Transcaucasian coast of the Black Sea
Hunted to extinction by the beginning of the 20th century. The subspecies' validity is questioned because moose from Russia later colonized the North Caucasus naturally over the 20th century.[55]
Most recently dated to 8718 BCE in Teppa u Lupinu, Corsica and 5641–5075 BCE in Grotta Juntu, Sardinia. It survived the first human colonization of the islands, but became extinct when
Neolithic peoples arrived.[34]
Survived into the early Holocene of
Scania and (as the subspecies C. c. palmidactyloceros) in
northern Italy,
Switzerland, and possibly the
French Alps while the
temperate forest-adapted
red deer replaced it in the rest of Europe. The
dwarf subspecies C. c. tyrrhenicus existed in
Capri after the post-glacial sea level rise.[58]
Cattle, goats, antelopes, and others (family
Bovidae)
Declined after the
Russian conquest of the Caucasus as a result of increased hunting, deforestation, and
domestic cattle rearing. The subspecies was protected in the 1890s when it was limited to 442 animals in the area between the Belaya and Laba rivers. However an
epizootic outbreak in 1919 reduced the animals to just 50, and the last individuals were
poached in 1927.[59] The only captive animal, a male, lived in
Germany between 1908 and 1925 and bred with females of the lowland wisent subspecies. As a result, several wisent populations carry its genes today.[60]
Most recent remains dated to 1130-1060 BCE near the
Oyat river in
Western Russia. However this date was not
calibrated and the remains could be older.[62] Recent calibrated dates include 9450 BCE in the Southern Urals, 8650 BCE in the Middle Urals, and 7550 BCE in Boreal Europe.[2]
Declined as a result of hunting, deforestation for
agriculture, competition with livestock for pastures, and diseases transmitted by domestic cattle. The last individual in the
Jaktorow forest of
Mazovia, Poland died in 1627,[63] and the last in
Sofia, Bulgaria in the late 17th or early 18th century.[64][65] There are different active
projects to breed aurochs-like cattle and
release them in the wild as proxy for the aurochs.
Most recent confirmed remains in
Kolomna, Russia dated to 10811 BCE, during the
Last Glacial Period.[66] However, unique
genetic introgression into local
domestic water buffaloes and possible remains from the Neolithic of southeastern Europe (9000-7000 BCE) and Atlantic of
Austria (7000-4000 BCE) suggest that the native European species of water buffalo survived into the Holocene.[67] In 2019, Rewilding Europe released domestic buffaloes in the Danube Delta as proxy for the European water buffalo.[68]
Hunted to extinction around 1890. A different subspecies of
Spanish ibex naturally colonized the
Peneda-Gerês National Park in the Portuguese ibex's former range during the 21st century.[69][70]
The last individual, a female, died at
Ordesa National Park in 2000. A single
cloned individual was born on July 30, 2003, but died several minutes later,[72] making this the first case of biological
taxonde-extinction and a taxon becoming extinct twice. In 2014, Spanish ibexes from the
Guadarrama Mountains were released in the
French Pyrenees as proxy for the Pyrenean ibex.[70]
Most recent remains dated to 3969-3759 BCE in
Menorca, 3649-3379 BCE in
Cabrera,[73] and 2830-2470 BCE in
Mallorca. The timeframe allows to confidently exclude
climate change as a reason for the extinction and blame it solely on the first human settlers to the islands.[74]
The last wild population in Poland's
Białowieża Forest was hunted to extinction during
World War I. A captive herd was returned to Bialowieza in 1929; it was made of zoo animals, some of which were hybridized with other subspecies or species of bison. Individuals with
American bison ancestry were removed from Bialowieza in 1936, and with Caucasian wisent ancestry in 1950. The Bialowieza herd was fully returned to the wild in 1952 and subsequently used as stock for pure lowland herds in Poland, Lithuania, and
Belarus.[75] The Caucasian-lowland hybrid line was introduced to the
Kavkazsky Nature Reserve in 1940, in the Caucasian wisent's former range, and allowed to roam free from 1946.[76] Other hybrid wisent herds were later established in the Carpathians, Ukraine, and Russia.[75]
Most recent remains in Sweden were dated to 7050 BCE.[79] The first reintroduction attempt was made at
Gurskøya, Norway in 1925, but all animals died because of the unfavorable climate or
poaching. Another herd was released at
Hjerkinn in the
Dovre mountains in 1932. These animals are presumed to have been exterminated during
World War II, though there were unconfirmed sightings of muskoxen at
Tafjord in 1942 and 1951. The definitive successful reintroduction in Dovre was made in 1947.[80] In 1971 a herd left Dovre after being harassed by
tourists and established itself in
Harjedalen, Sweden. Norwegians also introduced muskoxen to
Svalbard in 1929, outside of the muskox's natural range, but this population died out by the 1970s.[79]
The species bred in
Kazakhstan and southern Siberia and wintered in western
Morocco and
Tunisia, being present in Europe during
migration or as a vagrant. It likely disappeared as a result of
habitat alteration in Asia and overhunting in Africa. The last confirmed record worldwide was in Hungary, in 2001.[82]
Originally hunted for its feathers, meat, fat, and oil; as it grew rare, also to supply collectionists. The last pair on the eastern Atlantic was killed on
Eldey Island, off Iceland in 1844.[83]
Extirpated from Europe before 1650 as a result of habitat loss, climate change, and direct persecution.[85] A 1738 painting made in
England by
Eleazar Albin was based on a stuffed specimen or an older depiction.[86] In 1991 a gradual reintroduction project using handreared chicks began at
Alpenzoo Innsbruck in Austria, and in 2011 a migratory population was established between southern Germany, Austria, and
Tuscany. A second reintroduction project started in southern Spain in 2004.[85]
Described as different separated species including Bubo insularis, before being recognized as a subspecies of the Asian
brown fish owl.[89] The most recent remains in Corsica date to 7433-7035 BCE. In Corsica-Sardinia it could have been locally adapted to prey on the Sardinian pika, disappearing after human arrival with it.[9]
Occasional winter visitor to southwest
Andalusia until the end of the 19th century, with a single later record of a bird shot in
Jerez de la Frontera in 1998.[90]
Most recent remains dated to 5295 BCE. The causes of extinction are presumed human-induced due to the lack of climatic changes at the time, such as the introduction of exotic predators like
feral dogs,
pigs, and
garden dormice by the first human settlers.[95]
Eastern coast of North America and the
Baltic region
Last known Baltic specimen was caught in 1996 near
Muhumaa, Estonia.[96] It was reintroduced to the
Oder river in 2009,[97] and to the
Narva in 2013.[98]
Caspian Sea, Volga, Ural and Terek river drainages
Last recorded in the Ural in the 1960s.[107] All spawning grounds were lost after dams were built in the Volga, Ural, and Terek river drainages. The species continues to exist in captivity, from which it is released periodically in its native range. However, illegal fishing and hybridization with the introduced
nelma remain threats to its survival.[108]
Disappeared around 1940 as a result of
water pollution.[109] Though treated as a different species since about 1700, a genetic study in 2023 found the houting indistinguishable from the
lavaret (Coregonus lavaretus) still extant in Great Britain, the Alpine area, and waterways it was introduced to.[110][111]
Last recorded in the 1960s. Extinct as a result of hybridization with the
three-spined stickleback; the springs it inhabited were separated from the latter's habitat by a
hypersaline lake acting as barrier between the species, until
irrigation works transformed the lake into a
brackish one that was invaded by migratory three-spined sticklebacks.[112]
Only known from a male adult and a
nymph found on a dead
Iberian lynx in 1997, itself a
critically endangered species with low
population density and
disjunct distribution at the time. Besides difficulties in mixing and exchanging populations, the lice was threatened by the fact that lynxes taken to captive breeding centers were systematically deloused.[116][117]
Last collected in 1938. Both the Main and the Rhine were heavily polluted around that time and all local caddisfly species disappeared. Although other caddisflies returned after water quality improved, this species has not been recorded since.[124]
Last recorded in 1987 and deemed extinct as a result of water substraction, which peaked in 1988. However, fresh shells collected in 2009 may hint to its continued survival.[126]
Islets of Dyo Adelfoi, Megali Zafrano, Karavonisi, and Divounia, inbetween
Astypalaia and
Karpathos, Greece
Known only from subfossil shells in three islets and last recorded in the fourth in 1985. Likely declined due to habitat alteration caused by fire, tourism, and military construction.[132]
Not seen since its description in 1874. The species has been suggested to be the same as, or related to Drusia deshayesii from northern Morocco and
Algeria, as well as an introduced species.[133]
Sea anemones, corals, and zoanthids (class
Hexacorallia)
^The source gives "11,700 calendar yr b2k (before CE 2000)". But "BP" means "before CE 1950". Therefore, the Holocene began 11,650 BP. Doing the math, that is c. 9700 BCE.
^A. corsicanus was originally applied to remains from Corsica and A. similis to Sardinia. It was later recognized that A. corsicanus existed in the early Pleistocene of both islands, and A. similis in the late Pleistocene-Holocene, as seen in Moncunill-Sole et al. (2016).
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^Roland, M., & Schenker, A. (2023). Illustration eines Waldrapps Geronticus eremita vom Jura aus dem 16. Jahrhundert. Ornithologische Beobachter, 120(3).
^Louchart, A., Bedetti, C., & Pavia, M. (2005). A new species of eagle (Aves: Accipitridae) close to the Steppe Eagle, from Pleistocene of Corsica and Sardinia, France and Italy. PALAEONTOGRAPHICA ABTEILUNG A PALÄOZOOLOGIE, STRATIGRAPHIE, 272, 121-148.
^Salotti, M., Louchart, A., Bailon, S., Lorenzo, S., Oberlin, C., Ottaviani-Spella, M. M., ... & Tramoni, P. (2008). A Teppa di U Lupinu Cave (Corsica, France)–human presence since 8500 years BC, and the enigmatic origin of the earlier, late Pleistocene accumulation. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia-Series A: Vertebrata, 51(1-2), 15-34.
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^García, E. & Patterson, A. (2020) Where to watch birds in southern and western Spain. Bloomsbury Publishing, 400 pages.
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^Day, D. (1989). Vanished species. Popular Culture Ink.
^Torres-Roig, E., Mitchell, K. J., Alcover, J. A., Martínez-Freiría, F., Bailón, S., Heiniger, H., ... & Bover, P. (2021). Origin, extinction and ancient DNA of a new fossil insular viper: molecular clues of overseas immigration. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 192(1), 144-168.
^Pérez, J. M., Sánchez, I., & Palma, R. L. (2013). The dilemma of conserving parasites: the case of Felicola (Lorisicola) isidoroi (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae) and its host, the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Insect Conservation and Diversity, 6(6), 680-686.
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This is a list of European species extinct in the Holocene that covers
extinctions from the
Holocene epoch, a
geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years
before present (about 9700
BCE)[A] and continues to the present day.[1]
Most recent remains dated to 3040-1840 BCE. A painting on the
Ancient Egyptian tomb of
Rekhmire (1470-1445 BCE) depicting exotic animals brought to Egypt as tribute by foreign peoples, has been interpreted by some authors as a depiction of a dwarf elephant.[4]
Most recent remains dated to 348 BCE - 283 CE.[9] Though hunted by the original human inhabitants of the islands, it likely became extinct due to
Roman agricultural practices, the introduction of predators (
dogs,
cats, and small
mustelids) and ecological competitors (
rodents,
rabbits, and
hares).[10] Transmission of
pathogens by rabbits and hares could have been another factor.[11] Survival into
modern history, even as late as 1774 on the smaller island of
Tavolara, has been hypothesised from the description of unknown mammals by later Sardinian authors; however, this interpretation remains dubious owing to anatomical discrepancies.[12]
Most recent remains dated to 9650 BCE in the
Ponto-Caspian region, 9550 BCE in
Boreal Europe, 9450 BCE in the
British Isles, 8850 BCE in
Northwestern Germany, 8750 BCE in northern Central Europe, 6050 BCE[2] in the
Carpathian Basin, the Middle Holocene in the Middle Urals,[13] and 1220 BCE in the Southern Urals.[2] This species avoids human disturbance strictly and is considered an excellent indicator of the health of
steppe ecosystems, as a result.[14]
Most recent remains dated to 9650 BCE in the Ponto-Caspian Region, 9550 BCE in Boreal Europe, 8750 BCE in northern Central Europe, 8250 BCE in the
Franco-Cantabrian region, 6050 BCE in Northwestern Germany, 5850 BCE[2] in the Carpathian Basin, and Late Holocene in the Urals.[14]
Most recent remains at
Mochlos dated to the
Bronze Age. It was outcompeted and replaced by the
house mouse accidentally introduced by sailors from the eastern Mediterranean.[15]
Most recent remains at
Escorca, Mallorca dated to 4840-4690 BCE, coinding with the period of initial human settlement in the island. It could have succumbed to diseases carried by introduced
commensal mammals.[17]
Most recent remains at
Alcúdia dated to 3030-2690 BCE, coinding with the period of initial human settlement in the island. It could have succumbed to diseases carried by introduced commensal mammals.[17]
Most recent remains in the Franco-Cantabrian region dated to 9350 BCE.[2] Other lion remains from Italy and northern Spain could indicate that a small form survived in mountain areas until the
Preboreal and
Boreal, respectively.[20]
Remains were found in
Shengavit and
Urartu, Armenia dating to the
4th-
3rd millennium BCE. It is also depicted in
rock art of the 4th-
1st millennium BCE, where it can be differenciated from the leopard by the shape of its paws and unretracted claws. Possibly survived in Armenia until the
Middle Ages before disappearing due to
hunting.[21]
According to the alternate hypothesis, the modern lion expanded into southern Europe and replaced the cave lion there already in the
Late Glacial, surviving in Italy and northern Spain until the Preboreal or Boreal.[20] A possible second colonization event took place in the
Balkans during the
Atlantic and Subboreal periods, reaching as far as
Hungary, southwestern
Ukraine, and Greece. In the
Iron Age the lion strongly declined until it disappeared from these regions, possibly because of hunting and
habitat loss caused by increasing human population and
livestock rearing.[22] In 370 CE the
Greco-Roman orator
Themistius mentioned that lions had disappeared from
Thessaly, their last Balkan stronghold.[C] Lions were also hunted historically across
Transcaucasia, and were reportedly common in the
ungulate-rich
Kura-Araz and
Mughan plains, up to the
Absheron Peninsula, until 900 CE.[24]
A cold-adapted subspecies of the leopard, Panthera pardus spelaea, was widespread in Europe during the Pleniglacial and Late Glacial.[25] A 8850 BCE record from the Franco-Cantabrian region,[2] another from the Preboreal or Boreal of Greece, and two from the Sub-Atlantic of western and southern Ukraine could indicate that leopards survived or recolonized the continent in the Holocene. However, later remains from
Hellenistic and
Roman sites are confidently attributed to imports from Asia and Africa.[22]
In the Caucasus, the leopard was hunted to extinction from most of the region by the 1950s or 1960s,[26] but still survives in small areas of the
North Caucasus, southern Armenia, and Azerbaijan.[27] These leopards belong to the Persian subspecies Panthera pardus tulliana, which also occurs in
Anatolia.[28] In 1889 an Anatolian leopard was killed in the Greek island of
Samos after swimming from Asia. Local
folklore suggests that similar events have happened in the island at different times in history.[29]
Present permanently in the Caucasus region and along the
Caspian and eastern
Azov coasts, the
Terek and
Kuban rivers, and the
estuary of the
Don river during the 10th-12th centuries CE, with
vagrants recorded as far as
Chernihiv, Ukraine.[26] Last recorded in
Mingrelia and
Imeretia at the beginning of the 17th century, Armenia in the early 19th century, eastern Georgia in 1936,[24] and Azerbaijan's
Talysh Mountains in 1966. Last three were all vagrants intruding after tigers stopped breeding in the respective area.[26]
Exterminated by livestock farmers. The last confirmed individual was killed in 1924 near Bellolampo; unconfirmed killings near
Palermo were reported between 1935 and 1938, and unconfirmed sightings between 1960 and 1970.[30]
Most recent remains dated to 7050-6550 BCE in Riparo Fredian, Italy (with doubts)[31] and Les Coves de Santa Maira, Spain.[32] Claims of 21st century presence of dhole in the Caucasus are erroneous.[33]
Most recent remains in Corsica dated to 9910-9710 BCE and Sardinia to 9531-9196 BCE, roughly coinciding with modern human colonization of the islands.[34]
Martens, polecats, otters, badgers, and weasels (family
Mustelidae)
Known from a single skeleton found in a cave with no
stratigraphical context but estimated to be Late Pleistocene or early Holocene,[35] 68050-8050 BCE.[36]
Western Europe to western Siberia,[37] Anatolia?[38]
Historical sources record
wild horses living until the 12th century in
Denmark, 13th in Germany,[39] 14th in
Portugal, 16th in Spain,[40] the
Vosges,
East Prussia, and
Lithuania; 18th in the northern
Carpathians[39] and southern Urals,[41] and 19th in
Poland and Ukraine.[42] The last in the wild was killed in
Askania-Nova in 1879, and the last in captivity died in the
Moscow Zoo in 1887.[39] Some sources treat them as wild, untameable animals of different nature to horses, and others as
feral horses or
hybrids, casting doubt on the moment when pure wild horses became extinct in the continent. Despite this, the
IUCN considers the subspecies E. f. ferus valid. The
Tatar-
Cossack word tarpan became a popular name for European wild horses in the 19th century, though it is sometimes limited to horses from central and eastern Europe.[42]
Paleogenomics suggest that
horses were domesticated independently in the
Ponto-Caspian steppe and expanded to the rest of Europe by the Bronze Age. Early
nomadic pastoralists likely released their horses to graze freely at night, resulting in feral populations and hybridization with wild horses. Wild mares were also captured to replenish domestic herds, breaking down the social order of wild herds and diminishing their reproduction. Around 600-1100 CE, the originally high genetic diversity of domestic horses descended to modern levels.[42] In historical times European wild horses were hunted for their meat, hide,
traditional medicine, sport, and to protect crops and livestock
hay deposits during the winter.[40][39] Several horse breeds have been claimed to have recent tarpan ancestry including the
Konik,
Sorraia,
Exmoor pony,
Hucul pony,
Bosnian Mountain Horse,
Estonian Native, and
Gotland pony. However, genetic and historical evidence indicate that they are typical domestic horses.[42]
Remains dated to 8050 BCE in Western Europe, 3550 BCE in Italy,[2] 3300-2700 BCE in
Karanovo, Bulgaria; 3200-2500 BCE in
Los Millares, Spain; 2050 BCE in southern
Central Europe,[2] and 1500-500 BCE in
Keti, Armenia. Questionable remains in Didi-gora, Georgia dated to 1075 BCE. The hydruntine inhabited open steppe habitat that became rarer and fragmented in the Holocene, making it more vulnerable to human exploitation.[43]
Probably present in the deserts between the
Volga and
Ural rivers until the 18th or 19th century, when it was extirpated due to increasing hunting with firearms and seizure of waterholes for livestock use. 18th century records from
Voronezh, Russia are considered unreliable.[45] It was first reintroduced to Askania-Nova, Ukraine in 1950.[46] In 2020
Rewilding Europe released kulan in the
Tarutyne steppe next to the
Danube Delta.[47] It has also announced plans to release kulan in Spain as proxy for the hydruntine.[48]
Possibly calved in the Mediterranean in ancient times.[49] All few confirmed individuals in Europe since 1999 were identified as vagrants from the North American population, and known calving areas in Africa appear to be depleted.[50]
Most recent remains at
Ijmuiden, Netherlands were dated to 550 CE.[52] A vagrant from the Pacific population dispersed over the
Arctic Ocean and was seen in Europe in 2010.[53][54]
North Caucasus and the Transcaucasian coast of the Black Sea
Hunted to extinction by the beginning of the 20th century. The subspecies' validity is questioned because moose from Russia later colonized the North Caucasus naturally over the 20th century.[55]
Most recently dated to 8718 BCE in Teppa u Lupinu, Corsica and 5641–5075 BCE in Grotta Juntu, Sardinia. It survived the first human colonization of the islands, but became extinct when
Neolithic peoples arrived.[34]
Survived into the early Holocene of
Scania and (as the subspecies C. c. palmidactyloceros) in
northern Italy,
Switzerland, and possibly the
French Alps while the
temperate forest-adapted
red deer replaced it in the rest of Europe. The
dwarf subspecies C. c. tyrrhenicus existed in
Capri after the post-glacial sea level rise.[58]
Cattle, goats, antelopes, and others (family
Bovidae)
Declined after the
Russian conquest of the Caucasus as a result of increased hunting, deforestation, and
domestic cattle rearing. The subspecies was protected in the 1890s when it was limited to 442 animals in the area between the Belaya and Laba rivers. However an
epizootic outbreak in 1919 reduced the animals to just 50, and the last individuals were
poached in 1927.[59] The only captive animal, a male, lived in
Germany between 1908 and 1925 and bred with females of the lowland wisent subspecies. As a result, several wisent populations carry its genes today.[60]
Most recent remains dated to 1130-1060 BCE near the
Oyat river in
Western Russia. However this date was not
calibrated and the remains could be older.[62] Recent calibrated dates include 9450 BCE in the Southern Urals, 8650 BCE in the Middle Urals, and 7550 BCE in Boreal Europe.[2]
Declined as a result of hunting, deforestation for
agriculture, competition with livestock for pastures, and diseases transmitted by domestic cattle. The last individual in the
Jaktorow forest of
Mazovia, Poland died in 1627,[63] and the last in
Sofia, Bulgaria in the late 17th or early 18th century.[64][65] There are different active
projects to breed aurochs-like cattle and
release them in the wild as proxy for the aurochs.
Most recent confirmed remains in
Kolomna, Russia dated to 10811 BCE, during the
Last Glacial Period.[66] However, unique
genetic introgression into local
domestic water buffaloes and possible remains from the Neolithic of southeastern Europe (9000-7000 BCE) and Atlantic of
Austria (7000-4000 BCE) suggest that the native European species of water buffalo survived into the Holocene.[67] In 2019, Rewilding Europe released domestic buffaloes in the Danube Delta as proxy for the European water buffalo.[68]
Hunted to extinction around 1890. A different subspecies of
Spanish ibex naturally colonized the
Peneda-Gerês National Park in the Portuguese ibex's former range during the 21st century.[69][70]
The last individual, a female, died at
Ordesa National Park in 2000. A single
cloned individual was born on July 30, 2003, but died several minutes later,[72] making this the first case of biological
taxonde-extinction and a taxon becoming extinct twice. In 2014, Spanish ibexes from the
Guadarrama Mountains were released in the
French Pyrenees as proxy for the Pyrenean ibex.[70]
Most recent remains dated to 3969-3759 BCE in
Menorca, 3649-3379 BCE in
Cabrera,[73] and 2830-2470 BCE in
Mallorca. The timeframe allows to confidently exclude
climate change as a reason for the extinction and blame it solely on the first human settlers to the islands.[74]
The last wild population in Poland's
Białowieża Forest was hunted to extinction during
World War I. A captive herd was returned to Bialowieza in 1929; it was made of zoo animals, some of which were hybridized with other subspecies or species of bison. Individuals with
American bison ancestry were removed from Bialowieza in 1936, and with Caucasian wisent ancestry in 1950. The Bialowieza herd was fully returned to the wild in 1952 and subsequently used as stock for pure lowland herds in Poland, Lithuania, and
Belarus.[75] The Caucasian-lowland hybrid line was introduced to the
Kavkazsky Nature Reserve in 1940, in the Caucasian wisent's former range, and allowed to roam free from 1946.[76] Other hybrid wisent herds were later established in the Carpathians, Ukraine, and Russia.[75]
Most recent remains in Sweden were dated to 7050 BCE.[79] The first reintroduction attempt was made at
Gurskøya, Norway in 1925, but all animals died because of the unfavorable climate or
poaching. Another herd was released at
Hjerkinn in the
Dovre mountains in 1932. These animals are presumed to have been exterminated during
World War II, though there were unconfirmed sightings of muskoxen at
Tafjord in 1942 and 1951. The definitive successful reintroduction in Dovre was made in 1947.[80] In 1971 a herd left Dovre after being harassed by
tourists and established itself in
Harjedalen, Sweden. Norwegians also introduced muskoxen to
Svalbard in 1929, outside of the muskox's natural range, but this population died out by the 1970s.[79]
The species bred in
Kazakhstan and southern Siberia and wintered in western
Morocco and
Tunisia, being present in Europe during
migration or as a vagrant. It likely disappeared as a result of
habitat alteration in Asia and overhunting in Africa. The last confirmed record worldwide was in Hungary, in 2001.[82]
Originally hunted for its feathers, meat, fat, and oil; as it grew rare, also to supply collectionists. The last pair on the eastern Atlantic was killed on
Eldey Island, off Iceland in 1844.[83]
Extirpated from Europe before 1650 as a result of habitat loss, climate change, and direct persecution.[85] A 1738 painting made in
England by
Eleazar Albin was based on a stuffed specimen or an older depiction.[86] In 1991 a gradual reintroduction project using handreared chicks began at
Alpenzoo Innsbruck in Austria, and in 2011 a migratory population was established between southern Germany, Austria, and
Tuscany. A second reintroduction project started in southern Spain in 2004.[85]
Described as different separated species including Bubo insularis, before being recognized as a subspecies of the Asian
brown fish owl.[89] The most recent remains in Corsica date to 7433-7035 BCE. In Corsica-Sardinia it could have been locally adapted to prey on the Sardinian pika, disappearing after human arrival with it.[9]
Occasional winter visitor to southwest
Andalusia until the end of the 19th century, with a single later record of a bird shot in
Jerez de la Frontera in 1998.[90]
Most recent remains dated to 5295 BCE. The causes of extinction are presumed human-induced due to the lack of climatic changes at the time, such as the introduction of exotic predators like
feral dogs,
pigs, and
garden dormice by the first human settlers.[95]
Eastern coast of North America and the
Baltic region
Last known Baltic specimen was caught in 1996 near
Muhumaa, Estonia.[96] It was reintroduced to the
Oder river in 2009,[97] and to the
Narva in 2013.[98]
Caspian Sea, Volga, Ural and Terek river drainages
Last recorded in the Ural in the 1960s.[107] All spawning grounds were lost after dams were built in the Volga, Ural, and Terek river drainages. The species continues to exist in captivity, from which it is released periodically in its native range. However, illegal fishing and hybridization with the introduced
nelma remain threats to its survival.[108]
Disappeared around 1940 as a result of
water pollution.[109] Though treated as a different species since about 1700, a genetic study in 2023 found the houting indistinguishable from the
lavaret (Coregonus lavaretus) still extant in Great Britain, the Alpine area, and waterways it was introduced to.[110][111]
Last recorded in the 1960s. Extinct as a result of hybridization with the
three-spined stickleback; the springs it inhabited were separated from the latter's habitat by a
hypersaline lake acting as barrier between the species, until
irrigation works transformed the lake into a
brackish one that was invaded by migratory three-spined sticklebacks.[112]
Only known from a male adult and a
nymph found on a dead
Iberian lynx in 1997, itself a
critically endangered species with low
population density and
disjunct distribution at the time. Besides difficulties in mixing and exchanging populations, the lice was threatened by the fact that lynxes taken to captive breeding centers were systematically deloused.[116][117]
Last collected in 1938. Both the Main and the Rhine were heavily polluted around that time and all local caddisfly species disappeared. Although other caddisflies returned after water quality improved, this species has not been recorded since.[124]
Last recorded in 1987 and deemed extinct as a result of water substraction, which peaked in 1988. However, fresh shells collected in 2009 may hint to its continued survival.[126]
Islets of Dyo Adelfoi, Megali Zafrano, Karavonisi, and Divounia, inbetween
Astypalaia and
Karpathos, Greece
Known only from subfossil shells in three islets and last recorded in the fourth in 1985. Likely declined due to habitat alteration caused by fire, tourism, and military construction.[132]
Not seen since its description in 1874. The species has been suggested to be the same as, or related to Drusia deshayesii from northern Morocco and
Algeria, as well as an introduced species.[133]
Sea anemones, corals, and zoanthids (class
Hexacorallia)
^The source gives "11,700 calendar yr b2k (before CE 2000)". But "BP" means "before CE 1950". Therefore, the Holocene began 11,650 BP. Doing the math, that is c. 9700 BCE.
^A. corsicanus was originally applied to remains from Corsica and A. similis to Sardinia. It was later recognized that A. corsicanus existed in the early Pleistocene of both islands, and A. similis in the late Pleistocene-Holocene, as seen in Moncunill-Sole et al. (2016).
^"...and we are displeased because
elephants have been removed from
Libya, because lions have disappeared from Thessaly, because
hippopotamoi have been gotten rid from the marshes of the
Nile."[23]
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^Kuzmin, Y. V. (2010). Extinction of the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) and woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) in Eurasia: review of chronological and environmental issues. Boreas, 39(2), 247-261
^Masseti, M. (2008). The most ancient explorations of the Mediterranean. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. 4th Ser, 59(Suppl I), 1-18.
^Boeskorov, G. G., Chernova, O. F., & Shchelchkova, M. V. (2023, May). First Find of a Frozen Mummy of the Fossil Don Hare Lepus tanaiticus (Leporidae, Lagomorpha) from the Pleistocene of Yakutia. In Doklady Earth Sciences (Vol. 510, No. 1, pp. 298-302). Moscow: Pleiades Publishing.
^Prost, S., Knapp, M., Flemmig, J., Hufthammer, A. K., Kosintsev, P., Stiller, M., & Hofreiter, M. (2010). A phantom extinction? New insights into extinction dynamics of the Don‐hare Lepus tanaiticus. Journal of evolutionary biology, 23(9), 2022-2029.
^Čermák, S., Obuch, J., & Benda, P. (2006). Notes on the genus Ochotona in the Middle East (Lagomorpha: Ochotonidae). Lynx (Praha), 37, 51-66.
^Averianov, A. (2001). Pleistocene lagomorphs of Eurasia. Deinsea, 8(1), 1-14.
^
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^Vigne, Jean-Denis & Valladas, Hélène (1996). "Small Mammal Fossil Assemblages as Indicators of Environmental Change in Northern Corsica during the Last 2500 Years". Journal of Archaeological Science. 23 (2): 199–215.
^Wilkens, Barbara (2000). Osservazioni sulla presenza in epoca recente del Prolago sardo a Tavolara secondo le notizie di Francesco Cetti. 3° Convegno Nazionale di Archeozoologia (in Italian). Siracusa. pp. 217–222.
^Kosintsev, P. A., & Bachura, O. P. (2014). Formation of recent ranges of mammals in the Urals during the Holocene. Biology Bulletin, 41(7), 629-637.
^
abNémeth, A., Bárány, A., Csorba, G., Magyari, E., Pazonyi, P., & Pálfy, J. (2017). Holocene mammal extinctions in the Carpathian Basin: a review. Mammal Review, 47(1), 38-52.
^Papayiannis, K. (2012). The micromammals of Minoan Crete: Human intervention in the ecosystem of the island. Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments, 92, 239-248.
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